CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Risk factors of dust particles, noise pollution and vibration among others in the quarrying company constitute major occupational health problems globally. Scientists, experts and numerous official bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Economic Community (EEC) have recognized dust, noise and vibration as a health hazard and their effects have been regarded as an increasingly important health problem (Nilsson et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2022). Studies across developed and developing countries have demonstrated that quarry industries under the umbrella of construction companies constitute the second most risky forms of employment on the health of employees across the world after agriculture (Azlina et al., 2014; Lop et al., 2018). Employees in quarry sector face numerous health hazards and are more than twice at risk for occupational health disorders than others (Ajayi et al., 2015). Most documented works have also shown that quarry industries employ over 20 million people in developing countries, providing a source of income to the workers and their dependents (Adeyemi et al., 2013; Uwakwe et al., 2015), but simultaneously exposing them to serious health hazards (Azlina et al., 2014).

A study of the ILO (International Labour Organization) reveals that 2.3 million individual’s loss their life every year due to occupational accidents or disease, and 350,000 of loss of lives are associated to occupational accidents. Again, the ILO evaluations show that 264 million non-mortal accidents every year result in work-related illnesses, resulting to roughly 3 days of absenteeism (ILO, 2014). Seo et al., (2004) in Fon (2022), demonstrated that industries in developing countries, are having great economic and employee’s expenditure resulting from injuries and illnesses related to their job. ILO and World Health Organization (WHO) in 2010 reported that many workers in manufacturing companies encounter workplace accidents that lead to health damage and economic losses.

In developed countries of the world, empirical studies have recognized little research works on risk factors of quarrying especially tackling dust, noise and vibration on the health of workers as a result of technological development (Health and Safety Executive, 2017). Most researches in this domain have concentrated on work related illnesses and injuries. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2005) noted with concern that 1.7 million people worldwide die annually of illnesses and injuries in the quarry sector in developed countries with highest rates coming from Germany, France and Greece. The Mines Inspection Agency of Greece (MIAG) recorded a 37.7 fatality rate (number of fatal accidents per 100,000 workers) for the overall quarrying sector between 1988 and 2002. In France about 44% of all fatal accidents in 2002 were related to quarrying while in Germany, between 1999 and 2003, 48% of all accidents reported were from the quarrying sector (ILO, 2005).

United State Census Bureau, (2006) noted that only 30% of Americans complained of dust, noise and vibration making them want to change their places of residence but little is known about this hazards  on quarry workers health given that their health are insured.  In Australia, findings by Ahmed et al., (2000) revealed that  quarry workers in Australia reported of 8% dislocation, 4% fracture of vertebrae column, 6% traumatic amputation, 12% open wounds, 28% hearing problems and the most prevalent injury was eye problems and strains and, other body malfunctions accounting for over 40% of all injuries. Hussein (2006) affirms that work related accidents accounted for 103000 deaths in USA, 122000 in European Union, 90500 in China and 40,000 in India in the year 2005.

In the case of the less developed countries, where the rate of such risk and death are higher, the relevant information is either unavailable or unreliable due to little research in this domain. Reports from the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2010) indicates that issues of Occupational health practices on the African continent have been ignored by most countries and organizations thereby indirectly augmenting risk factors on their employees. Cronon (1996) has called these risk factors unnatural. Epidemiological studies however, have supported the association between respiratory impairment and occupational exposure to dust by quarry workers, induced-hearing challenges resulting from noise and vibration (Jaber et al., 2015), these health exposures are mostly concentrated in developing countries of Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa and Cameroon. Empirical evidences to support these facts are little documented online in the sub-continent given that dust, noise, and vibration are considered to be potential hazards and currently seen as a global health concern. Significant proportion of health problems and fatalities in the quarrying sector in African countries are associated with manual operations, (Chigonda, 2010) and the health problems among the quarry workers are relevant because of the number of high-risk activities involved, and the peripatetic nature of the workforce. Low technological know-how, inadequate occupational laws and inadequacy in implementing occupational safety measures further make the working condition unfavorable in developing countries (WHO, 2000; ILO, 2014; Koaja et al., 2018).

In Ghana, there is very little data on the effect of noise exposure on quarry industrial workers. More so, the increasing number of patients seeking medical attention for their ears at Hearing Assessment Centre at the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital (KATH) in Kumasi between 1995 to 1998 (Amedofu, 2002) has called for the need to focus attention on noise pollution on workers in the industrial settings such as quarry industries. In Nigeria, quarry workers are commonly afflicted with musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). This health problem has been recognized as a significant threat to the quarry workers’ safety (Stanley et al., 2021). Empirical studies have recognized MSDs as one of the costliest and common work-related health burdens on the employees, leading to loss of body parts and time, low productivity, change of career, handicap and total or partial dependence on the society (Darragh, 2009; Egwuonwu, 2013; Health and Safety Executive, 2017).

In Cameroon, quarrying activity is one of the informal activities which have the potential of contributing to the development and economies of communities where ever the quarry companies are installed (Samba et al., 2022), at the same time, the risk factors on occupational health of workers as well as the environmental impacts on surrounding communities have been a major concern to governments, the general public and stakeholder of organizations and individuals. In the Makenene locality in the Centre Region of Cameroon, gravel and building stones quarrying activities have been on-going for decades now. Several health risk factors emanating from the quarry activities have negative effects on occupational health of workers in the quarry sector. Samba et al., (2022) in their study reported of physical injuries, and work related illnesses (respiratory diseases) such as silicosis, and tuberculosis due to inhalation of dust in the quarry vicinity. Other researchers also reported various work-associated risk factors due to occupational exposure to dust and vibration such as general body ache (Parthak and Dkhar, 2010), chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (Blanc et al. 2009), hearing impairment as a result of exposure to excessive noise (Gyamfi et al., 2016), eye injuries (Ezisi 2019), and musculoskeletal disorders (Njaka et al., 2021).

Since the early 1990s, Cameroon government developed a set of national environmental laws and policies to improve protection and govern its ecological and mining/ quarry sectors. At the same time the Cameroon safety services legislation laid emphasize on workers to be provided with appropriate work tools, however effective implementation and follow-up of these measures has been a major setback. The Growth and Employment Strategy Paper (GESP), which defines the development policy in Cameroon for the period 2010-2020, included the mining/ quarrying sector among its favorite pillars for the achievement of its objectives. This document reveals that the State intended to work in such a way as to “promote and encourage research, exploitation, and transformation of mineral resources necessary for the economic and social development of the country”.  In liaison to this, many mining and quarry factories have been granted permit to operate in the country. There is however nuance understanding of the effect of these quarry companies activities on occupational health of employees given that safety measures to protect workers are not implemented or are not in existing.  This is the more reason why quarry companies in Cameroon suffers from a number of constraints including lack of basic knowledge, safety precautions, poor working conditions, low socio-economic status, lack of clear quarrying legislation and environmental degradation that call for special attention. These are more pronounced in small scale quarry operations.

In Bamenda II Municipality where this present work is conducted, three quarry companies operate within the vicinity. The Kendely, ABM and Dreamland quarry company. These quarry companies have created job opportunities to 128 persons. Unfortunately, their activities cause significant impact on the health of employees and the surrounding environment. In fact, the extraction process normally depends on heavy machines and explosives, where both poses dust particles, noise pollution, vibration, damage to biodiversity and habitat destruction and surrounding water bodies and streams. Crushing activities is resulting in the emission of dust particles which constitute a major health hazard on occupational health. In the quarry site, dust particles, noise and vibration present a real risk in the extraction process. Heavy machinery during its operation as well as cutting tasks, drilling and blasts create a very big risk that must be controlled. This present work therefore attempts to establish a baseline study in this domain by evaluating the effect of risk factors on the health of employees in the selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality so as to raise awareness to policy makers on necessary steps to follow to sustainably govern quarry company operations with aim of protecting workers health in the study area and beyond.

1.2. Statement of Research Problem

There has been growing public dissatisfaction in the manner in which quarrying activities are undertaken in Cameroon. In Bamenda II Municipality, the quarrying activities from the Kendely, ABM and Dreamland quarry plants generate dust particles, noise and vibration which may cause major annoyance, health and physical problems to employees. Employees experience Respiratory problems, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Skin irritation, Eye irritation & conjunctivitis, Brain damage, High Blood Pressure, Noise induce hearing loss, Headache, Silicosis, Lung cancer, Neurosensory disturbances which are as a result of their exposures to risk factors of dust, noise and vibrations emanating for blasting, drilling, crushing, screening and hauling in the quarry companies.

Inhalation of dust in human lungs causes respiratory and pulmonary damage such as silicosis, bronchitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis and lung cancer (Last, 1998). Exposure to high noise levels causes headache, increase in blood pressure, and nervous breakdown as well as Infrastructural damages due to different levels of vibrations.

Exposure to vibration causes vibration white fingers (VWF), neurosensory disturbances such as numbness and tingling, reduced grip strength and decreased manual dexterity (Gemne, 1997; Heaver et al., 2011; Gerhardsson et al., 2013)

Though substantial work has been carried out on the implications of quarry activities on the health of employees, most of the works have concentrated on work related injuries (Health and Safety Executive, 2017).  Dust particles, noise pollution and vibration appears to be one of the relatively neglected areas of investigation in the stone quarrying field. This research work therefore attempts to fill in this gap. This present study therefore is aimed at investigating the effect of risk factors of Dust particles, noise pollution and vibration on the health of employees in the selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality and the need to have better informed employees on the mitigation of the risk in the quarry industry.

1.3. Research Questions

1.3.1. Main Research Question

What are the effects of risk factors on the health of employees in selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality?

1.3.2 Specific Research Questions

1. What are the effects of dust particles on employees’ health in selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality?
2. To what extent is the effects of noise pollution on employee’s health in selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality?
3. What is the extent to which vibration affects employee’s health in selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality?

1.4. Research Objectives

1.4.1. Main Research Objective

The main objective of this research work is to:  Investigate the effects of risk factors on the health of employees in selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality

1.4.2. Specific Objectives

• To examine the effect of dust particles on employee’s health in the selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality.

2. To investigate the effects of noise on employee’s health in the selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality.
3. To evaluate the effect of vibration on employee’s health within selected quarry companies in Bamenda II Municipality.