GENERAL INTRODUCTION

0.1 Background of the study

The history of human rights merges with the history of man. It reflects its different stages as they have been marked by the evolution of thought in general and by the vicissitudes of praxis that accompany them. The same religious, philosophical and political thoughts that underlie, analyse or explain the fabric of such a way of life in society are also the basis of human rights. These rights revolve around the ideas that forged and conveyed them, as concepts, and the instruments that expressed and made them effective. Human Rights have many concepts from where it originated, but it started some two thousand years ago from the religious background, where Human rights was enacted in the 10 commandments and also in the Hammurabi Code[1], where the law was in charged to protect the strong from oppressing the weak.

It was also seen in the works of saint Thomas Aquinas[2], when he was talking about the theory of natural rights. He mentions that, if a country is found not protecting the rights of its citizens, there should be non-respect of territorial boundaries by other countries to see how these rights can be protected. There was also the contribution of Medina of 1622 AD, which was drafted by Mohammed to bring families together, Christians, Muslims and pagans, for them to come together and protect human rights.[3]

This issue of human rights can be traced through the earliest codification, that was enacted in England by Magna Carta[4] of 1215, which took into consideration a number of human rights and principles to protect the rights of the English citizens and also, the contribution of the 1688 German Tow Quaker[5], who petitioned against the act of slavery. Also, the contribution of the British Bill of Rights, which made the government not to carry out certain acts which were against the protection of Human Rights and also, the contribution of the US Declaration of 1776 revolution Act, kicking against the violation of human Rights.

The Magna Carta[6], often regarded as one of the earliest legal documents to outline fundamental rights and limit the power of monarchs, marked a significant milestone in the evolution of human rights. While its immediate focus was on the rights of English nobility, some of its provisions laid the groundwork for broader principles that later became integral to human rights.[7] The Magna Carta established the idea that the ruler was subject to the law and that certain rights, such as due process and protection from arbitrary imprisonment, were to be upheld. Although it may not have been an extensive human rights declaration by today’s standards, it set a precedent for future legal developments.

The Quakers, particularly the German-born Quaker Francis Daniel Pastorius, made notable contributions to the early human rights movement by advocating against slavery and promoting equality[8]. Pastorius is credited with writing the first antislavery tract in the American colonies in 1688, known as the “Germantown Quaker Petition Against Slavery.”[9] This document highlighted the inherent dignity and equality of all human beings, regardless of race, and condemned the practice of enslavement. The Quaker movement’s moral stance against slavery contributed to the broader discourse on human rights and laid the foundation for later abolitionist efforts[10].

The British Bill of Rights, enacted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was a significant development in the protection of human rights in England[11]. It affirmed parliamentary supremacy over the monarchy and set forth a series of rights that limited the powers of the monarch, ensuring, among other things, the right to petition the king, the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishments, and the protection of freedom of speech in Parliament.[12] The Bill of Rights established key principles that influenced subsequent human rights declarations and constitutional developments.

The U.S. Declaration of Independenc[13]e, authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson, articulated the grievances of the American colonies against British rule and asserted the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This groundbreaking document proclaimed that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed and that people have the right to alter or abolish governments that violate their rights[14]. While not a legal instrument in itself, the Declaration of Independence laid the philosophical foundation for the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights, which enshrined specific rights and protections for American citizens. These historical milestones collectively represent a gradual progression toward the recognition and protection of human rights. They demonstrate the evolving understanding of human dignity, equality, and freedom, and how various individuals, documents, and movements contributed to shaping the principles that underpin modern human rights frameworks. The legacy of these contributions continues to influence contemporary discussions and efforts to uphold human rights globally.

The evolution of Human Rights can also be witnessed after the second world war with the adoption of the Uni versal Declaration of Human Righs. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1948. Motivated by the experiences of the preceding world wars, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was the first time that countries agreed on a comprehensive statement of inalienable human rights.[15] In line with that, the UN rapidly worked and put in place several international instruments and institutions with the ultimate goal geared towards human rights promotion and protection.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 was followed by more than 70 international treaties, including the important international covenant on civil and political rights and that on economic, social and cultural rights of 1966. At the turn of the century, it is important to distinguish three major classifications of human rights: the first generation rights, which are civil and political rights, which protect the individual as such (the right to life, to religious freedom, etc.); Second generation rights which are economic, social and cultural rights, which aim to guarantee access to a certain number of benefits (right to work, right to social security, etc.) and “third generation” rights, which are intended to serve the international community as a whole (protection of the environment, of world heritage, for example).[16]

The establishment and evolution of human rights commissions represent a significant development in the protection and promotion of human rights worldwide. These commissions serve as independent bodies tasked with monitoring, investigating, and advocating for human rights within a specific country. The historical evolution of human rights commissions reflects the growing recognition of the importance of safeguarding individual rights and holding governments accountable for violations. Here’s a brief overview of this evolution:

The idea of national human rights commissions began to take shape in the mid-20th century, as international human rights standards gained prominence. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948, laid the groundwork for the protection of fundamental rights globally. Early commissions, such as the New Zealand Human Rights Commission (1977) and the Australian Human Rights Commission (1986), emerged to raise awareness, educate the public, and address specific human rights concerns.

The 1970s and 1980s saw the establishment of human rights commissions in various Latin American countries, often in response to authoritarian regimes and human rights abuse[17]s. For instance, the National Commission on Disappeared Persons (CONADEP) in Argentina was created in 1983 to investigate and document the human rights violations committed during the military dictatorship. Similar commissions were established in Chile and other countries to address past atrocities and seek justice for victims.

The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) is perhaps one of the most well-known examples of a human rights commission with a specific mandate[18]. Established in 1996, the TRC played a vital role in addressing the human rights violations of apartheid-era South Africa. It provided a platform for victims and perpetrators to share their experiences, seek reconciliation, and promote social healing.

In the late 20th century and into the 21st century, the concept of human rights commissions continued to expand globally.[19] Commissions were established in various countries with diverse mandates, ranging from investigating police misconduct to promoting gender equality. Many commissions, such as the Canadian Human Rights Commission (1977) and the Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (1999), were created to address discrimination and ensure equal treatment for marginalized groups.

The Paris Principles, adopted by the United Nations in 1993, provided guidelines for the establishment and functioning of national human rights institutions, including commissions[20]. These principles emphasize the importance of independence, pluralism, accountability, and effectiveness. National human rights commissions around the world have sought to align their practices with these principles to ensure credibility and impact.

The concept of Human Rights widely spread around the world following the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)[21]. International Organizations, Governments, Non-Governmental Organizations and Associations have undertaken the task to work on and protect Human Rights. The protection of Human Rights is not only the duty of national governments but also the desire of the various non-governmental organizations and the civil society’s at large. Additionally, National Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs) work with the essential aim of protecting Human Rights. The concept of National Human Rights Institutions gained High international Recognition after the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. During the second half of the twentieth century, civil society organizations and international bodies took renewed interest in promoting equity and harmony in society by protecting the basic civil, political, economic, social, and environmental rights of all people. For them, human progress can only be attained if the civil and political rights of individuals and groups are established and protected[22].

The effective protection of human rights always requires a good knowledge of the human rights conditions and applicable legal principles.[23] CSOs consistently monitor human rights situations in particular countries all over the world (the latter is applied to transnational NGOs, such as Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International). They also monitor whether states comply with their obligations under human rights law. In other words, they act as “watchdogs” and provide an independent overview and assessment of whether and how human rights are ensured. Such monitoring helps to collect data about human rights situations at the national and international level and highlight any problems. CSOs/NGOs are well known for their role in gathering information with respect to the abuse of human rights and freedoms. They gather information from various sources: for example, from human rights victims, witnesses, other human rights NGOs, newspapers, in examining injuries and physical evidence, observing trials, and demonstrations

Development will undoubtedly falter if people are not liberated from poverty, provided with basic education, health, safety, a clean and protected environment, and empowered to represent and speak for themselves—all alienable human rights. The Teheran Proclamation of 1968 asserted that “since human rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible, the full realization of civil and political rights without the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights is impossible.” Today, the perception that social and economic rights are an important component of the human rights array is widespread. This perception is vigorously espoused by civil society and its constituent—NGOs, both of which can play an effective role in promoting and protecting human rights in societies, especially where democracy is going through a turbulent period of consolidation.[24]

The activities of civil society organizations (NGOs) are generally recognized as an important element not only in the initial establishment of a genuine democracy but also in ensuring that, once achieved, it remains healthy and flourishing[25]. The contribution which such organizations make is often political in the broader and non-party sense but it is also manifested in their pursuit of a vast array of interests – such as culture, recreation, sport and social and humanitarian assistance, to say nothing of the rights of those at work and the simple personal fulfillment of those who belong to the bodies concerned that underpin the vitality of civil society. However, the essential role played by non-governmental organizations, although not open to question, is not one that is appreciated by all States at all times, not least because it does entail an unambiguous commitment to democracy. Nonetheless realizing and sustaining such a commitment is an objective of paramount importance for global and regional organizations such as the United Nations, the African Union, the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the organization of American States and it is thus not surprising that provisions guaranteeing and promoting the rights of non-governmental organizations have readily found a place in many of the instruments adopted by all these bodies[26]

The principal basis for securing the position of non-governmental organizations rests upon the guarantee of freedom of association but there are also a limited number of instruments directed specifically to such organizations and the latter are also able to rely upon other human rights guarantees that have a particular bearing on the pursuit of their activities[27]. The novelty supported in this work suggests that in order to define the level of protection of freedom of association in accordance to international documents and domestic legislative acts, the status of civil society which consists of various social entities should be assessed first of all. In this regard, respective statutory acts accepted by these organizations ensure wide use of the right to freedom of association. Universal and European documents on human rights includes all guaranties for freedom of association. Namely, these documents are accepted as standards for the legal status of a person. There are numerous sources of international laws which define the standards concerning associations established for specific purposes based on individual membership. [28]

Human rights activists and organizations have proliferated all over the world in the past few decades. They serve as the voice for the oppressed and the underprivileged, organizing them, taking collective action on their behalf, and fighting for their rights. These organizations empathize with the downtrodden and occupy the roles of advocate and facilitator in their quest for greater empowerment[29]. In Cameroon, the intensification of human rights advocacy has taken place for two main reasons: (a) the expansion of human rights issues in a society that has faced one crisis after another in political, social, and economic spheres; and (b) the gradual emergence of a powerful and effective civil society and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This study will attempt to highlight some of the key human rights issues relating to social and economic development in Cameroon, explore the roles of civil society and NGOs in promoting and safeguarding them through various programs and strategies, and identify some of the contemporary challenges they face.

The roots of civil society in Cameroon in the 1990s are many and can be appreciated under economic, social and political rubrics. The civil society in Cameroon became quite vocal in the 1990s and was bent on “opening and expanding the political space”[30]. To that effect various groups and organizations and even personalities that thirsted for freedom, justice, good governance against the totalitarian regime snowballed into civil society. Cameroon’s legislation on associational life is regulated and controlled through legal instruments having drawback clauses intended to maintain a firm grip on associational life (Law No. 90/053, Law No. 99/Law No. 90/053, Law No. 99/014). The legal instruments confer on the groups a legal personality enabling them to act in their own name(s) within the ambit of the law as artificial persons separate from their founders (Salomon v. Salomon 1897). It is in affirming its attachment to fundamental freedoms contained in the universal declaration of human rights and other regional and international human rights instruments that the Cameroonian Constitution guarantees freedom of association as is the case with other freedoms (Republic of Cameroon 1990)

The Constitution of Cameroon[31], reflecting the people’s commitment to safeguard human rights, is based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Constitution pledges eighteen fundamental civil and political rights, including equality before law, right to life and personal liberty, safeguards as to arrest and detention, freedom of assembly, freedom of occupation, protection in respect of trial and punishment, rights to property, etc.[32] In addition, the Constitution also promises to safeguard certain social and economic rights for specific segments of the population and social sectors. Above all, the Constitution guarantees the freedom of association and assembly which is fundamental as far as civil society and the protection of Human Rights is concerned. Cameroon has buttressed her intentions to guarantee the freedom of Association to Civil Society by enacting the Law on Freedom of Association.[33]

In Cameroon, the challenge of civil society organizations has been to create awareness in citizens that will encourage them to take responsibility for their individual and collective destiny[34]. Unfortunately, the liberties of her citizens as found in the constitution have remained so far a dead letter. Civil society is fractured and the flavor of its vibrancy has gone soured. In any ordinary sense, the civil society deals with day-to-day operations of livelihood. One can talk of civil society when it has an impact on the society, if not it should be left out

The Republic of Cameroon gained membership in to the UN on the 20^th of September 1960.[35] As such duly approved or ratified treaties and international agreements pursuant to Section 45 of the Constitution are applicable in Cameroon, so to the required standards.[36] It is in the same vein as the above that the Cameroon Constitution has wholly adopted and incorporated some international instruments without any dilution, notably of which are the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Charter of the United Nations and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights.

The end of the 20th century is characterized by the phenomenon of the internationalization of human rights. Indeed, under the instigation of the UN, an important work of codification of these rights was carried out within the framework of international law, the States being constantly reminded of their duty to rally to it. It was therefore reaffirmed at the second world conference on human rights held in Vienna in 1993, that “it is the duty of States, whatsoever the political, economic and cultural system, to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms”.[37]

From the creation of the Commission of human rights[38], the United Nations recommended to all the States to set up “local committees” responsible for disseminating human rights internally. Subsequently, the need to better frame these rights on a practical level led the international community to encourage States to create national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights or to strengthen them if they existed already. But it was not until the end of the 1980’s and especially the 1990s to see the creation on both sides, in sub-Saharan Africa, of the first institutions of this nature[39], at a time when the population demanded more democracy and freedoms.

It is in this context that Cameroon saw the creation by Presidential Decree in 1990[40], of the National Committee on Human Rights and Freedoms. At the same time a number of laws have been enacted to improve the exercise of various freedoms such as: the National Communication Council, abbreviated as NCC, created by law N° 90/052 of December 19, 1990 on the freedom of social communication, its organization and functioning is governed by Decree N° 2012/038 of January 23, 2012 reorganizing the National Communication Council; the creation by law N° 2000/016 of December 19, 2000 of a National Election Observatory, replaced by Elections Cameroon by law N° 2006/011 of December 29, 2006 as amended by Law N° 2019/005 of April 25, 2019 amending and supplementing certain provisions of Law N° 2012/001 of April 19, 2012 on the Electoral Code( ELECAM).

However, many deficiencies and insufficiencies pushed the legislator to reform the National Committee on Human Rights and Freedoms in 2004[41], by Law N° 2004/016 of July 22, 2004 relating to the creation, organization and functioning of the National Commission on Human Rights and Freedoms. We thus went from the “Committee” to the “Commission”.

Despite this, there is a negative correlation between human rights commitments and their actual protection. Various independent international and domestic human rights organisations have noted Cameroon’s poor human rights record,[42] particularly in the civil and political rights category.[43] There are reports of pervasive human rights abuses such as extra-judicial executions, enforced disappearances, torture, arbitrary detention and suppression of political freedoms.
The persecution of political opponents, journalists and human rights activists is a cause for concern. the same goes for socio-economic rights. Reason why the latter Cameroon Human Rights institution was also reformed by Law N° 2019/014 of July 19, 2019 relating to the creation, organization and functioning of the Cameroon Human Rights Commission. We thus embarked in this research to see whether the current reform can enable the Commission to efficiently protect Human Rights.        

Human rights play a fundamental role in establishing a just and equitable society, ensuring the dignity and freedom of every individual. Effective mechanisms for upholding and safeguarding human rights are crucial for the protection of citizens’ rights and the promotion of social harmony. One such mechanism is the establishment of national human rights commissions, which act as independent institutions tasked with monitoring, advocating for, and addressing human rights violations within a country.

Cameroon, a culturally diverse and geopolitically significant nation in Central Africa, has witnessed its share of human rights challenges over the years. Despite being a signatory to various international human rights treaties and conventions, allegations of human rights violations have been persistent, ranging from issues related to freedom of expression, arbitrary detentions, police brutality, discrimination, and socio-economic inequalities, particularly in its regions with historical grievances.

The establishment of the Cameroon Human Rights Commission (CHRC) marked a significant step towards addressing these concerns. The CHRC, like many national human rights commissions across the world, was founded with the aim of investigating human rights violations, promoting awareness, advising the government, and ensuring justice for victims. However, its effectiveness, independence, and impact have come under scrutiny both domestically and internationally.

This study seeks to conduct a comprehensive appraisal of the Cameroon Human Rights Commission’s performance, drawing critical lessons from the experiences of human rights commissions in other countries. By examining the successes and challenges faced by similar institutions abroad, this research aims to provide valuable insights into how the CHRC can enhance its operational efficiency, strengthen its independence, and ultimately contribute more effectively to the promotion and protection of human rights in Cameroon.       

0.2 Problem Statement

The protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms (human rights) has always been on a negative trajectory in Cameroon. As far back as President Ahidjo’s regime, reports of massive human rights violations, including torture and suppression of political freedoms were not uncommon. Under President Biya, efforts were made to broaden the scope of human rights and improve institutional protection mechanisms. This was the mark of the 1990s when a number of laws, more widely known as the laws of liberty, were enacted to improve the exercise of various freedoms[44] and to regulate the maintenance of public order and a state of emergency.[45] The 1990s also saw a new addition to human rights with the creation of the National Committee on Human Rights and Freedoms to complement the role of the judiciary in the protection of human rights. Other initiatives have included the creation of a human rights directorate at the Ministry of Justice with responsibilities for the protection and promotion of human rights. The state has also been adept at ratifying international human rights instruments; thus, joining the community of States expressing an interest in strengthening human dignity[46].

With the same aim of effectively protecting human rights in Cameroon, the legislator reformed the National Committee on Human Rights and Freedoms by Law N° 2004/016 of July 22, 2004 relating to the creation, organization and functioning of the National Commission on Human Rights and Freedoms, and recently by Law N° 2019/014 of July 19, 2019 relating to the creation, organization and functioning of the Human Rights Commission of Cameroon.

Despite all these, there is a negative correlation between human rights commitments and their efficient protection. Various independent international and national human rights organizations have noted the weakness of human rights protection in Cameroon. Widespread human rights violations such as extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, torture, arbitrary detention and the suppression of political freedoms. The persecution of political opponents, journalists and human rights activists is a source of concern.

In addition, the Cameroonian populations show a low knowledge of their economic, social, civil and political rights, as well as a limited understanding of their roles, rights and responsibilities as citizens; Yet the government’s stated policy, however, is to treat the three generations of human rights equally, reflecting the interdependence of all human rights. Despite all these efforts, we are increasingly witnessing multiple human rights violations in Cameroon. This is a glaring sign that Human Rights Commission has been inefficient.

This is why we are carrying out this study which consists of examining the new Cameroon Human Rights Commission in order to know whether it will able to efficiently protect human rights in Cameroon after the new reform in 2019.

[1] The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text dated to around 1750 BC. AD, to date the most complete of the known codes of laws of ancient Mesopotamia. http://musee.louvre.fr, Accessed on 20/01/2021.

[2] Medevielle. G, (2010), Nature and natural law as theological concepts, In Recherches de Science Religieuse, (Volume 98), 245-265.

[3] Grotius H, (2013) “The Law of War and Peace”, Cambridge University Press, p.22.

[4] The Magna Carta (“Great Charter”) is a document guaranteeing English political liberties that was drafted at Runnymede, a meadow by the River Thames, and signed by King John on June 15, 1215, under pressure from his rebellious barons.

[5] Hildegard. J, (1988), The Germantown Protest of 1688 against Negro Slavery, Vol. 80(3), Monatshefte: University of Wisconsin Press,  268-277.

[6] Howard, AE Dick. Magna Carta: text and commentary. University of Virginia Press, 1998.

[7] Radin, Max. “The Myth of Magna Carta.” Harvard Law Review 60.7 (1947): 1060-1091.

[8] Aptheker, Herbert. “The Quakers and Negro Slavery.” The Journal of Negro History 25.3 (1940): 331-362.

[9] Furtado, Peter. Quakers. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013.

[10] Dandelion, Pink. The Quakers: A very short introduction. OUP Oxford, 2008.

[11] Maer, Lucinda, and Oonagh Gay. The bill of rights 1689. House of Commons Library, 2009.

[12] Archives, Parliamentary. “Bill of Rights 1689.”

[13] Congress, U. S. “Declaration of independence.” Available in: http://memory. loc. gov/cgi-bin/ampage (1776).

[14] Ibid

[15] https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/what-universal-declaration-human-rights. Accessed on 10/01/2023.

[16] Historique des droits de l’homme, Journal Le Monde, Publié le 14 août 2003 à 11h10 Accessed on 24/02/2023.

[17] Paus, Eva, Nola Reinhardt, and Michael Robinson. “Trade liberalization and productivity growth in Latin American manufacturing, 1970-98.” The Journal of Policy Reform 6.1 (2003): 1-15.

[18] Sarkin, Jeremy. “The trials and tribulations of South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission.” South African Journal on Human Rights 12.4 (1996): 617-640.

[19] Mickelson, Roslyn A., et al. “The Past, Present, and Future of Brown’s Mandate: A View from North Carolina.” American Behavioral Scientist 66.6 (2022): 770-803.

[20] Melander, Göran, Gudmundur Alfredsson, and Leif Holmström. “Principles Relating to the Status of National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (Paris Principles): Welcomed by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 20 December 1993.” The Raoul Wallenberg Institute Compilation of Human Rights Instruments. Brill Nijhoff, 2004. 53-57.

[21] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in Paris France in 1948 to protect humanity following the perpetration if actions during the WWII which violated the very essence of Humanity

[22]Ibrahim F. I. Shihata, (1991)  The World Bank In A Changing World: Selected Essays 133 (Quoting
United Nations, Human Rights: A Compilation Of International Instruments 19, ¶ 13 (1983)).

[23]David S. Weissbrodt and Connie de la Vega, International Human Rights Law: an Introduction (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), p. 359.

[24] Archer, Peter (1967) “Action by unofficial organizations on human rights” in Evan Luard (ed.) Protection of Human Rights. London, Thames and Hudson.

[25] This is specifically recognized in Articles 16 and 18 of the UN Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Declaration on Human Rights Defenders) (GA Res 53/144, 9 December 1998) and Paragraph 27 of the Document of the OSCE Istanbul Meeting, 1999 (Charter for European Society). The ‘essential nature of their role has also been emphasized by the European Court of Human Rights; see Gorzelik and Others vPoland, 17 February 2004 [GC], para 92.

[26] Cohen, Roberta, (1992) Human Rights and Humanitarian Emergencies: New Roles for U.N. Human Rights Bodies. Washington, DC, Refugee Policy Group, September.

[27] All these guarantees (other than the right of complaint;) relate only to the activities of non-governmental organizations within States; as to their status within international organizations, see A-K Lindblom, The Legal Status of Non-Governmental Organizations in International Law, (2001), chs 4, 7 and 8

[28] For instance, it should be mentioned that a number of guaranties set out in article 20 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, article 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 16 of the American Convention on Human Rights.

[29] Korey, William (1998) “NGOs and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights., A Curious Grapevine”. New York, St. Martin’s Press.

[30]Awasom, S. Y., (2005). “The vicissitudes of Cameroon civil society in the 1990s. What lessons for the central African Region?” in E.S.D Fomin and John W. Forje (eds) Central Africa: Crises, Reform and Reconstruction,
Dakar: CODESRIA.

[31] Law No 96/06 of 18^th January 1996 Amending the 1972 Constitution of the United Republic of Cameroon

[32] See Generally the Preamble of the Cameroon Constitution as amended in 2008. The Constitution also made promises to safeguard fundamental rights of people. For example, it states, “[t]he Republic shall be a democracy in which fundamental human rights and freedoms and respect for the dignity and worth of the human person shall be guaranteed.”

[33]Law n°2020/009 of 20 July 2020 to amend and supplement some provisions of law no. 90/53 of 19 December 1990 relating to freedom of association

[34]Mbuagbo, O. T. and Fru, C.N., (2003), “Civil society and democratization: The Cameroonian experience” Journal of Social Development in Africa, Vol. 18, No.2, 133 – 149.

[35] Available at https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=When+did+Cameroon+join+the+UN. Accessed on the 21/08/2023.

[36] Law N° 96-06 of 18 January 1996 on the Cameroon Constitution.

[37]Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna on 25 June 1993, point N°5 page 03.

[38] Now replaced by the Human Rights Council, created on March 15, 2006 by a Resolution of the United Nations General Assembly n° AG / 10449, the Human Rights Commission was created on June 21, 1946 by Resolution 9 (II) of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.

[39] Togo and Benin are among the pioneers because their Human Rights Commissions were created in 1987 and 1989 respectively.

[40] Decree N° 90/1459 of November 8, 1990, establishing the National Committee for Human Rights and Freedoms.

[41] The creation of the Committee by Presidential Decree turned out to be inconsistent with the Paris principles governing the functioning of national human rights protection institutions.                                        

[42] US Department of State, ‘2018 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Cameroon’ (13 March 2019) https://www.state.gov/wp-content/ uploads/2019/03/Cameroon-2018.pdf, accessed 12 October 2020.

[43] See, for instance, Freedom House, ‘Freedom in the World 2019: Cameroon Country Report’ https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/cameroon accessed 10 September 2019;

[44] Law N° 90/052 on the Freedom of Social Communication (FSC); Law N° 90/053 on Freedom of Association; Law N° 90/055 on Public Meetings and Processions; Law N° 90/056 on Political Parties, all promulgated on 19 December 1990.

[45] Law N° 90/47 on the State of Emergency; Law N° 90/54 on the Maintenance of Law and Order.

[46] United Nations International Human Rights Instruments, Distr. GENERAL HRI/CORE/1/Add.109,19 June 2000 “Core Document Forming Part of the Reports of States Parties Cameroon”.