CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Adolescent girl participation in education has become a real concern to the world particularly the developing countries of the sub-Saharan Africa, Cameroon included. Girl education contributes to family and the community at large, thus the selected cultural practices that influence Adolescent Adolescent girls’ participation in education need to be addressed. International organizations, Nongovernmental organization and the government of Cameroon have addressed the quality of education in Cameroon and particularly for Adolescent girls. Despite such concern, Adolescent Adolescent girls’ participation in education in Cameroon is still low at all levels as compared to other nations of the world. Dropout and repetition rates are higher for Adolescent girls than boys in most areas in Cameroon, (GOK, 2018). This has been perpetuated by cultural causes, in that the society gives priority to boys’ education. For example, biased gender roles, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), early marriages and societal attitude towards Adolescent girls ‘education, have been cited as accounting for the inequalities being realized, (Bala 2016).

Abagi (1995), noted that gender gap in education has its roots in the colonial period as is clearly indicated in history. While most governments attempt to increase Adolescent Adolescent girls’ participation (enrolment, retention and completion) in education, a lot needs to be done so that full participation is actually realized. Indeed, despite sensitization programmes, seminars and policy statements, many of the good intentions to improve Adolescent Adolescent girls’ education remain at the theoretical level. According to the Ministry of Education (2007), governments concentrate on provision of education for children, yet some societies still discriminate between sexes on the success to education.

Background of the Study

 Historically, it is of significant to mention that earlier education in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia inclusive was available mainly for men. Against this backdrop, women were from the onset disadvantaged in acquisition of formal education talk less of having opportunities in the formal employment sector.  Education acquired by the women initially was to meet the expectation of domestic needs. Avalos (2013) pointed out that this situation was not peculiar to Cameroon alone but even in Latin America where women education was to enable them perform domestic tasks and in raising children. Be that as it may, formal education introduced by the colonial masters brought little or no changes as Okoro (2015) noted that Christian missionaries founded the first formal school in Cameroon. Further afield, as soon as the Wesley Methodist mission led by Reverend Thomas Birch Freeman established the first school, Roman Catholic Mission Anglican Missionary and host of other followed suit. Anglican Grammar School was founded in 1859 by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) and this was among the first secondary school to be established. Indeed, to a considerable extent one would have expected that colonial education introduced in Africa would change and amend the existing distribution of power between men and women educationally as Nmadu (2000) observed but reverse was the case. The colonial conception of gender conspicuously marginalized the women folk, while it privileged men. Mama (2010) asserts that colonial exclusion of women from most sectors of the formal labor market for domestic works engagement which were largely unrewarded has been observed as one of the most formidable factors responsible for women’s marginal significance in contemporary African societies. Undoubtedly, the missionary venture in education was borne out of the desire to use the school and its curriculum to reinforce church doctrine as opined by Anugwom (2009). Not basically to have women educated, but colonial masters were in dire needs of teachers as well clerks in order to support manpower to run the colony.

Francis (2000), found out that, there is need to address the cultural environment from which cultural practices emerged, in order to eliminate the various justification used to perpetuate them. It is important to eradicate such practices based on the ideas of the inferiority or superiority of sex or stereotyped roles of gender. This kind of environment that denies girls opportunities to access education must be reformed.

Conceptually, Shiraev & Levy (2001) defined culture as a set of attitudes, behaviors and symbols shared by a large group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next. Culture may include beliefs, languages and idiom, verbal and non-verbal communication, protocol, music, ritual and beliefs in the origin and nature of knowledge, ethnicity, age, gender (Bennett, 2003). It is a behavioral pattern, belief and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed down from generation to generation (Santrock, 2004). Culture is an integral part of every person. Cultural differences therefore play a large role in determining individual differences. It is a way of life, the contest within which we exist, think, feel and relate to others. It establishes for each person a context of cognitive and affective behavior (Brown, 2014). Culture facilitates human and environmental interactions and it is learned and shared by all the members of a society (Murdock, 1961 cited in Brown, 2013). He went further to state that teaching is considered an activity firmly fixed with culturally bound assumptions about teachers and students. Culture affects the way teachers teach and the way children learn. Culture affects girls’ education in two ways, first, as a source of ideas about the educational process and, secondly, as a set of ideas and practices about the rights and responsibilities of women. All of this can have either positive or negative impacts on improving girls’ participation in education.

Education as a form of knowledge, values, skills, habit and benefits of a group of people that are transfer from society to another and one generation to the next generation through discussion, storytelling, teaching training or research (Schultze & Avital, 2011) it is equally described as the most significant aspect of human and societal development, and a strong weapon for a successful living, most especially girl child education (Obinaju, 2014). However, members of society are functional only when education is acquired and through the process of education, young realize their potentials, acquire knowledge and skills. It is channels of transmitting, preserving and improving the culture of a given society (Ocho LO, 2005). Education serves as a process of acquiring useful information to an individual and to help him develop specially, physically emotionally, politically, spiritually and economically (Atama, 2012). It is also a process through which a person can acquire an adequate knowledge, attitudes, skill, values and norms to be able to function appropriate and optimally as a member of a given society (Ocho, 2005). Therefore, Shaw, (1937) classified education into four segments: the “power to do, the power to know, the power to think and the power to feel. To crown it all, education is a vehicle for social mobility. If education, however, is to be afforded by series of experiences, these experiences must be organized in some way to contribute to development”.

Contextually, Myers (2010) pointed out that equal opportunity strategies relating to gender have largely fallen off the educational agenda in recent years, unless they relate specifically to improving Adolescent Adolescent girls’ achievement. In addition, extensive social and economic changes, as well as the impact of second wave feminism in the second half of the twentieth century, have led to shifts in gender roles in western society, most easily evidenced in the ever-increasing numbers of women now engaging in paid work. Wango (2020) observed that despite the recent educational success of Adolescent girls and women’s’ increased representation in the workplace, gender continues to contribute to behavior, choices and life outcomes. Francis (2020) found out that gender roles in the family remain largely unchanged and the most powerful jobs to be overwhelmingly dominated by men. Within education, male and female students continue to construct their gender identities differently with consequences for their learning and school experiences, (Francis 2015).

Francis (2000), further observed that research continues to demonstrate that a hidden curriculum helps to perpetuate, rather than to deconstruct, gender difference. Further, these gender constructions contribute to the subject choices made by students as soon as an element of educational choice is introduced. Such choices hold implications for their future career paths and quality of life. It is imperative that effective strategies for improving both Adolescent girls’ and boys’ educational experiences and opportunities be identified and pursued. In the recent past, various governments, International Development Agencies, United Nations (UN), International and National Women’s’ Organizations and Professional Associations of developed policies have come up strongly to oppose the practices.

The Kom community in Cameroon has been resistant to change, it was not until the mainstream churches, NGOs and advocacy groups made efforts to create awareness on the dangers of cultural practices, whose influence was highlighted (Bala, 2006). However, very little progress has been realized, since inequality on the provision of education based on gender seems to persist in many parts of the community. It is very clear that inequality in the provision of education may have negative consequences not only to the individual but also to the community. Education is a means of evaluating the level of achievement for the purpose of training, employment and empowerment, which is the key to development of both the individual and the society. This study seeks to determine the influence of the cultural practices such as early marriages, sex roles, Female Genital Mutilation and, societal attitude, on Adolescent Adolescent girls’ participation (enrolment, retention, and completion) in education at secondary school level in Kom Community. This study intends to explore some of these variables, which may hinder or disadvantage the process of Adolescent Adolescent girls’ participation in education at the secondary school level.

Theoretically, study was guided by Social Learning Theory and Cultural Lag Theory. Bandura (1986), developed social learning theory which emphasized on the importance of observing and modeling what other people do. Much learning occurs in the social context. He focused much of his work on modeling, a process which an individual learns new ideas and behavior by watching other people. Thus other people function as models and present the behavior to be imitated. Learners surrounded by positive models have the opportunity to learn a lot of positive behavior. Learners surrounded by models who have negative influence may find it difficult to learn certain skills. Social learning theory guides the peoples’ behavior so that it is in accordance to the norms, values and beliefs of the society, thus enabling them to adjust successfully. Behavior is picked consciously and unconsciously by observing the consequences the others receive for performance.

PRSP (2004) exposed that, girls learn from the experiences of others. If the behavior is positive, then the behavior is likely to be imitated unlike when the results are negative. The girls interact with the members of the society through socialization transmitting to them all the accumulated experiences to shape them to fit in the community, they acquire most of the social concepts and behavior by observing models in their daily lives. The main models to girls are those close or important to them. Girls are likely to model after their parents, teachers, caregivers and peers. Many girls fear to be associated with rebellion against cultural demands and therefore choose to comply at the expense of their education. The study revealed that the above association influence girls’ participation in education.

The study also based on Ogburn’s (1964), Cultural Lag Theory, as cited by Orodho, (2004). The proponent of the theory argues that within the society, change takes place in the material culture and that adaptive non-material culture changes extremely slowly in spite of changes elsewhere. Different rates of change in material and non-material part of culture account for cultural lag. In this sense, Ogburn, (1964), conceptualizes cultural lags as the failure of ideas, attitudes, aspects as institution and practices to keep pace with changes in the material culture. In Kom the girl child finds herself caught up in a web of non-adaptability to non-material cultural change. The study revealed that cultural lag is a major influence in girls’ participation in education at secondary school level.

Statement of the Problem

The UN argues that through education, girls can be key figures in development and poverty eradication. Hence, the establishment of MDGs initiatives was to increase hopes that by 2015, all children, particularly girls would have access to and complete basic education. Ironically, girls’ achievement in national exams lags behind that of their counterparts, boys. One wonders, could culture be a contributory factor towards the dismal academic achievement of girls in Kom. Inadequate education for Adolescent girls means underdevelopment to the individual and the society in a given nation. In many parts of the world, enrolment shows a decline in the case for the Adolescent girls. In Kom community, Adolescent girls’ participation in education at secondary school level seems to be quite low.  Cultural practices such as early marriages, gender roles, societal attitude, and others, influence Adolescent girls’ participation in education in regard to enrolment, retention and completion. The girl child and by extension women have been turn out to be bearers of children, and toilers of arduous labor from sunrise to sun set. They can only be seen but not be heard in both the private and the public spaces of decision making. The girl child by the natural status ascribe to her by male define norms of societal conduct and behavior remains a property to be owned and commoditized. No community will remain undeveloped if it has the required human capital and the best instrument for developing any society is to invest in human capital. This is because the acquired knowledge and skill will guarantee the economic and social liberation of the individual and by implication enhances their contribution to community and national development, Education is meant for all; in fact, it is the fundamental human right of every child whether boy or girl, able or disable to acquire the basic education. There should therefore be no discrimination as to who goes to school and who does not, hence education recognizes and helps to unlock the potential in every child. Therefore there is need for more research into the selected cultural practices that influence Adolescent girls’ participation in education at the secondary school level in Kom community, Cameroon.

Objective of the study

The purpose of this study was to determine cultural practices and its effect on the education on Adolescent Adolescent girls’ in Kom

Specific Objectives

1. Establish the influence of gender roles as cultural practice and its effect on the education on Adolescent Adolescent girls’ in Kom.
2. Find out the influence of societal attitude as cultural practice and its effect on the education on Adolescent Adolescent girls’ in Kom
3. Determine the influence of early marriages as cultural practice and its effect on the education on Adolescent Adolescent girls’ in Kom

Research Questions

Main research question

What are the cultural practice and its effect on the education of adolescent Adolescent girls’ in kom community?

Specific questions

1. What is the influence of gender roles as cultural practice and its effect on the education on Adolescent Adolescent girls’ in Kom?
2. Does gender role influence Adolescent girls’ participation in education Kom?
3. What is the influence of early marriages as cultural practice and its effect on the education on Adolescent Adolescent girls’ in Kom?