Chapter one

general introduction

• The Research Context

The need to restore damaged ecosystems has never been greater. Degradation is undermining hard-won development gains and threatening the well-being of today‘s youth and future generations, while making national commitments increasingly more difficult and costly to reach. None of the agreed global goals for the protection of life on earth and for halting the degradation of land and oceans have been fully met (UNEP 2021), and only 6 of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity targets have been partially achieved (CBD 2020a). We need to re-create a balanced relationship with nature, not only by conserving ecosystems that are still healthy, but also by urgently and sustainably restoring degraded ones. Ecosystem restoration alone cannot solve the crises we face, but it is key to averting the worst of them. Ecosystem restoration refers to the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Whitmee et al,(2015. It encompasses a range of activities aimed at reinstating ecological integrity and enhancing biodiversity, essential for the sustainability of both ecosystems and the human communities that depend on them.

 The Sustainable Development Goal 15 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is devoted to “protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”. At the Rio+20 Conference, Member States reaffirmed, through paragraphs 197- 204 of the outcome document, the Future We Want, that “intrinsic value of biological diversity, as well as the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity and its critical role in maintaining ecosystems that provide essential services, which are critical foundations for sustainable development and human well-being”. Member States also recognized “the severity of global biodiversity loss and degradation of ecosystems” and stress the negative impact that this situation has on food security, nutrition, access to water, health of the rural poor and people worldwide”.

Furthermore, the Future We Want reiterated the importance of implementing the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, and achieving the Aichi Biodiversity Targets adopted at the Tenth Conference of the Parties to the Convention. Biodiversity was discussed by the Commission on Sustainable Development on several occasions, and was one of the themes of the 2012/2013 two-year cycle.

At the World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg 2002, biological diversity was addressed in Chapter IV, paragraph 44, of the outcome of the Summit, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. The Summit also endorsed the target to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and national levels as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on earth, which had some months earlier been adopted by the sixth meeting of the CBD Conference of Parties (COP).

Conservation of biological diversity is the subject of Chapter 15 of Agenda 21 which was adopted at the United Nations Confere nce on Environment and Development, in 1992, in Rio de Janeiro. On the same occasion, the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), was opened for signature and remained open for signature until 4 June 1993. By that time, it had received 168 signatures. The Convention entered into force on 29 December 1993, 90 days after the 30th ratification. The first session of the Conference of the Parties was scheduled for 28 November – 9 December 1994 in the Bahamas.

The UN Decade focuses on eight broad categories of ecosystems, based upon the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Ecosystem Typology 2.0 (IUCN 2020). These ecosystems overlap somewhat; for example, some grasslands or forests are also peat lands, and all three of these ecosystems can occur in mountains. The study provides a snapshot of the all ecosystem, including the benefits that humans and other species gain from it and how it is being degraded.  In all ecosystems, biodiversity loss and degradation are caused by direct drivers (land- or sea-use change, direct exploitation, climate change, pollution, and invasive species), which are underpinned by demographic and economic indirect drivers that interact in complex ways. While the specific causes of degradation vary across ecosystems, in general overfishing is having the greatest impact on oceans, and terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems are most affected by land-use change, which is driven mainly by agriculture, forestry and urbanization (IPBES 2019). We are degrading our ecosystems in serious ways. From farmlands to forests, from mountains to oceans, our diverse ecosystems – both natural and modified – are being damaged faster than they can recover. This means they are losing their integrity, their biodiversity and their ability to provide essential services.

Biodiversity degradation in South Africa can be traced back to the period of European colonization, marked by the increased prevalence of unsustainable hunting practices, the introduction of invasive species, and the expansion of unsustainable agricultural methods. Compounded by an ever-increasing population, industrialization, urbanization, over-utilization of natural resources and climate change, land degradation has led to production losses and risks livelihoods of impoverished communities that rely heavily on the surrounding natural environment in South Africa. Around 22% of South Africa’s original natural habitat has disappeared since the arrival of European settlers (Skowno et al. 2021)

The incredibly diverse biodiversity and ecosystems of South Africa are greatly endangered. The 2018 National Biodiversity Assessment found there were substantial threats to South African biodiversity particularly in relating to estuaries, wetlands, coastal regions and that freshwater fishes are the most threatened (SANBI 2018).

While biodiversity degradation is an ongoing problem which requires substantial attention in South Africa, the nation boasts a comprehensive and resilient ecosystem restoration governance framework that actively promotes the preservation and restoration of biodiversity. This commitment is deeply embedded within the nation’s legal framework, encompassing the Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996), statutes enacted by the Parliament of South Africa, and governmental regulations

The Bamenda III Municipality is located in the North West Region of Cameroon, predominantly characterized by mountainous terrain, rich biodiversity, and significant agricultural activity. This area experiences a tropical highland climate, which is conducive to diverse plant and animal species. However, the region faces multiple environmental challenges, including deforestation, soil degradation, and the impacts of climate change (Ngwa et al., 2020). Bamenda III Municipality serves as a critical watershed for the surrounding populations. Its ecosystems provide vital services such as water regulation, soil fertility, and the support of local livelihoods through agriculture and agroforestry (Ndi, 2019). However, the pressures of urbanization, agricultural expansion, and population growth have led to significant environmental degradation, necessitating urgent restoration efforts.

The restoration of ecosystem faces several challenges. The outgrowth of agricultural practices and urban expansion has resulted in substantial forest loss. Studies indicate that local forests are shrinking due to logging and land conversion for farming, threatening biodiversity and water catchment areas (Akwaji & Tabi, 2018).  Also the loss of vegetation cover has led to increased soil erosion, diminishing soil fertility and agricultural productivity. Soil degradation has profound implications for food security and local livelihoods (Nchare et al., 2020). Equally, the region is increasingly affected by climate variability, leading to unpredictable rainfall patterns that adversely affect farming and water supply (Bam et al., 2017). The resultant stress on ecosystems further complicates restoration efforts.

Despite the challenge, the local population relies heavily on ecosystem services for their livelihoods, making the restoration of these ecosystems not only an environmental imperative but also a socioeconomic necessity. Traditional agro ecological practices have been employed historically, but their intensification has often led to practices that harm the environment (Mbah et al., 2020). There is a growing recognition of the need for integrated approaches to restore ecosystems while also improving the livelihoods of the residents in the Bamenda 3 Municipality.

Restoration initiatives in Bamenda III aim to address the aforementioned challenges by enhancing biodiversity, improving ecosystem resilience, and fostering sustainable land-use practices. Strategies include reforestation, sustainable agriculture, and community engagement in conservation efforts (Tobe et al., 2021). Evidence from previous studies emphasizes that successful restoration not only benefits ecological health but also helps anchor economic stability for local communities through sustainable resource use (Nseka & Ngwa, 2022).

1.2. The Study Area

Geographically, Bamenda III is located in the North West Region of Cameroon, situated approximately at  latitude  5.9631° N and a longitude of 10.1591° E. (figure 1.1). This positions it within the Western Highland region of Cameroon, characterized by a mountain landscape. It is bounded the South by Bamenda I, to West by Bamenda II, to the North by the Bafout and the East by Tubah municipality. Bamenda III is one of the municipalities within the Mezam Division of the North West Region. Bamenda itself is the capital of the North West Region and serves as an administrative center for both the region and the Mezam Division. The municipality is governed by a mayor and a municipal council, dealing with local governance issues, development plans, and community services.

 The population of Bamenda III Municipality has been affected by various socio-political factors but is estimated to have a diverse demographic composition, primarily consisting of the various ethnic groups of the North West region, including the Ngemba, Bantu, and others. While specific population figures can fluctuate, estimates are often in the tens of thousands. The municipality’s population reflects a mix of urban and rural characteristics, with a significant density in urbanized areas.

The economy of Bamenda III is primarily based on agriculture, commerce, and services. Residents engage in farming, particularly with crops such as maize, cassava, and beans. Additionally, trade and small-scale industries play a significant role in the local economy. Bamenda III has witnessed various development initiatives aimed at improving infrastructure, including roads, schools, and healthcare facilities. However, challenges such as political instability and economic constraints continue to impact growth. The municipality has a vibrant cultural scene, with traditional festivals, music, and arts that showcase the cultural heritage of the various communities residing there. Figure 1.1 below shows the location of Bamenda III municipality.

 Figure 1.1. The location of Bamenda III municipality

Source: Geo database of Cameroon; 2013, NIS Yaounde

1.3. Statement of the Problem

Ecosystem degradation poses one of the most significant threats to global biodiversity, human livelihoods, and overall environmental health. Despite mounting evidence of this decline, effective restoration efforts are often hindered by a range of challenges, including inadequate funding, lack of political will, insufficient scientific knowledge, and deep-rooted socio-economic factors. The United Nations has recognized the critical role of ecosystems in achieving sustainable development goals; however, there is a persistent gap between international commitments and on-the-ground actions. The complexity of ecosystems and the interconnections among various ecological, social, and economic systems complicate restoration initiatives. Many restoration projects are not grounded in robust ecological principles, leading to short-term gains with long-term negative consequences. Additionally, the fragmentation of governance and the diverse priorities of stakeholders at local, national, and international levels create barriers to coordinated and effective effort

This degradation is driven by various factors, including urbanization, agricultural expansion, mining activities, and invasive species. As ecosystems deteriorate, they lose their ability to provide essential services such as clean water, carbon sequestration, and soil fertility, which are crucial for human well-being and economic stability. Despite ongoing efforts in conservation and restoration, many initiatives lack a comprehensive understanding of local ecological dynamics and socio-economic contexts. This gap contributes to the ineffectiveness of restoration strategies, resulting in insufficient recovery of degraded areas.

Ecosystem restoration in Bamenda III municipality faces significant challenges due to various factors, including urbanization, deforestation, agricultural expansion, and climate change. The rapid population growth in this area has led to increased pressure on natural resources, resulting in habitat degradation, loss of biodiversity, and diminished ecosystem services that are vital for the local communities.

Despite the recognized importance of restoring degraded ecosystems to enhance environmental health and community well-being, there is a lack of comprehensive strategies and initiatives specific to Bamenda III. Local stakeholders, including government bodies, NGOs, and community members, often lack the necessary resources, knowledge, and coordinated efforts required for effective restoration practices. The effects of unsustainable land-use practices and environmental mismanagement have exacerbated issues such as soil erosion, water scarcity, and the deterioration of local flora and fauna. As a result, not only are ecosystems suffering, but the livelihoods of local populations that depend on these resources are also at risk.

This research aims to analyze the current state of ecosystems in the Bamenda III municipality, identify the key drivers of degradation, and propose viable restoration strategies that involve community participation, sustainable practices, and policy interventions. Addressing these issues is crucial for promoting ecological balance and improving the resilience of the community against the adverse effects of environmental change.