CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

To quench the thirst for knowledge in our changing society today, education is evolving to meet this challenge. From the beginning, man has always had a thirst for knowledge. To acquire knowledge, man has been in need of a conducive Educational Infrastructure for effective acquisition of knowledge. In the modern school setup, this conducive Educational Infrastructure consists of; classrooms, toilets, the school laboratories, the sport ground, water, electricity, libraries, school buses etc.

According to Sifuna (1990), Education plays a key role in socializing the individual to fit and participate adequately in development of the society An educated population has been recognized as being more productive than one that is not, as the former is easier to train and work better than the later, and those educated are better off economically. Psacharopoulos (1985), has highlighted the benefits of education as: improving the productive capacity of the society, reducing poverty by mitigating its effects on population, health and nutrition.  Increasing the value and efficiency of the labour offered by the poor and enhancing democracy and good governance among others.

New technologies and emerging pedagogical practices have created new requirements for Educational Infrastructure. As a result, new approaches to building learning environments must be developed that both create better spaces for children and increase the efficiency of investments in Educational Infrastructure. Though there are many colleges in Cameroon only a very few of them have a conducive Educational Infrastructure which can attract and enable the teaching /learning process to flow smoothly. Some schools have very small classrooms, others with few toilets, some with no water and electricity and some without school laboratories and sports ground. This has pushed the researcher to find out whether Educational Infrastructure has an influence on students performance.

Background to the study

This will include historical background, theoretical background, conceptual background and contextual background.

Educational Infrastructure constitutes the cradle of teaching and learning; schools are the foundations of individual pursuits. Hence Educational Infrastructure should therefore be conducive for learning, despite the necessity of these prerequisites for effective teaching and learning in our secondary schools. According to Tosam (1988), Educational Infrastructure implies all the facilities required for effective teaching and learning such as classroom, outdoor learning and play ground, furniture, water and sanitation, administration buildings, storage and cooking facilities. This researcher is worried because the Educational Infrastructure of most schools seem to be chosen more as a result of local political consideration and profit motives, as is the case with some lay private  secondary schools rather than looking at the quality of the Educational Infrastructure. In view of the great importance attached to education, a large portion of the national budget in the country and indeed in most developing countries goes towards education. Governments spent large amount of money in improving physical infrastructure in school. Education plays a crucial role in preparing the young for their roles in society. Education has become one of the basic rights which every citizen must have access to. Therefore the need for education of both girls and boys should be stressed. 

In the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) held in Jomtein in 1990. It was agreed that education is a basic need for all people. In Africa, this declaration was domesticated by the Dakar Framework of Action (2000). The participants identified several elements necessary for quality education among them motivated students, well trained teachers using actual learning techniques, adequate facilities and materials, local language curriculum that builds on teachers and learners knowledge and experience, welcoming gender sensitive, health, safe environment that encourage learning and accurate assessments of learning outcomes. The importance of education was to meet the goals of EFA which was set by 2015. In order to have expanded and improved all aspects of quality education and ensure excellence. Provision of quality education is enhanced by providing adequate Educational Infrastructure. Since time immemorial human beings have done a lot to facilitate their lives with the entire Educational Infrastructure in the world. Educational Infrastructure include laboratory, library, dormitory, solid waste disposals and classroom etc. These play an important role in enhancing safe and clean environment which is conducive for high achievement of students and physical comfort. Heyneman (1980), supports the idea (as cited in John Beynon 1997), that developing countries, low levels of learning among children can be partly attributed to poor and inadequate physical infrastructure in schools.

Education in Cameroon has witnessed a series of changes in educational infrastructure ranging from the location of schools, school laboratories the sports ground, teaching/learning methods quality of teachers amongst others. Considering the fact that Educational Infrastructure is one of the most important aspects of education, its influence to student’s performance is far reaching and cannot be undermined. Most secondary schools are often created with ministerial decrees but these decisions are not always preceded by any proper feasibility studies concerning the location of the schools. It is worth noting that sometimes the government creates schools and the local community is then charged with the location and the infrastructure. This often leads in choosing and providing areas with appalling difficult Educational Infrastructure. As a consequence, there’s bound to be an inevitable problem in the teaching/learning process. If teaching and learning in our schools must be salvaged from an impending abuse of ignorance and mediocrity, the educational authorities, parents, teachers and students must appreciate the need for a well-planned Educational Infrastructure consisting of the location of the school, well-equipped classrooms school laboratories, a well trained staff who will provide the school with a good layout such as playground, gardens, clean toilets etc. These will contribute to the physical beauty of the school environment and go a long way to encourage the teachers and learners, thereby reinforcing the teaching /learning process and influencing students’ performance.

Ngannge .K (1986), in Cameroon panorama says “a government that is development oriented and looks beyond today, must put in place a stringent Educational Infrastructure”. This researcher commenting on Ngannge K’s idea feels that, if the government allocates budgets for projects, it should put people to supervise them till completion and also keep an eye on their uses. According to L’effort Cameroonaise (2003), most churches that were put up by the Europeans are now in ruins due to our negligence. This negligent attitude is not seen only in churches but also in schools where most of the infrastructure, locations, buildings and furniture are not taken proper care of. Njilah  (2006), states that closely linked to infrastructure is the need to pay attention to school furniture such as desks, benches, cupboards, shelves etc. this researcher buys this view point because if Educational Infrastructures are not located in in conducive environments, with good buildings, school laboratories and sports ground, no teaching and learning will take place.

According to Ajayi (2001), Educational Infrastructure refers to factors within the school that influence the teaching/learning process. These includes classrooms, library, technical workshops, teachers’ quality, teaching methods, peers, among others variables that can affect the teaching/learning process The extent to which pupils learn could be enhanced depending on what the Educational Infrastructure provides to the learners and the teachers.  It is believed that a well-planned school will gear up expected outcomes of education that will facilitate good social political and economic emancipation, effective teaching/learning process and academic performance of pupils. Relating this study to international occurrences are the assertions of Williams, Persaud and Turner (2008), quoting Marsden (2005), which reported that safe and orderly classroom environment, school facilities were significantly related to students’ academic achievement in schools.  In developed countries like the United Kingdom and the United States of America, teaching and learning may not be affected by similar challenges as in the developing countries. As the developing countries  talk of awareness and wastage due to illiteracy of the parents, the developed countries have concentrated in funding their education without fear of any wastage or poor enrolment (MOEST: Report on Sector Review and Development, 2003). (Psachropoulous & Woodhall, (1995), stated from their research findings that the New York government has put up measures to ensure that all public primary schools have all the required physical facilities, instructional materials among others variables that may lead to effective teaching/learning process and improve students performance.. Educational Infrastructure is a major component in the process of teaching and learning and textbooks are often the most cost effective means of improving academic achievement and increasing the efficiency of schools    

UNICEF (2003), stated that the developing countries’, poor Educational Infrastructure have always been identified as key factors that lead to poor performance in public primary schools. This is due to overstretching of the available resources due to increased enrolment. In Uganda, physical characteristics of the school have a variety of effects on the teachers, pupils and the learning process. Poor lighting, noise, high levels of carbon dioxide in classrooms and inconsistent temperatures make teaching/learning process difficult. According to Frazier ( 2002),  Poor maintenance and ineffective ventilation systems lead to poor health among the pupils and higher absentee rates among .

Beyond the direct effects that poor facilities have on pupils’ ability to learn, the combination of poor facilities which creates uncomfortable and uninviting workplace for the teachers combined with frustrating behaviour by the pupil including poor concentration also have an effect on the teaching learning process. The situation is not any different here in Cameroon where several schools suffer due to lack of or inadequacy of Educational Infrastructure and instructional materials (UNICEF, 2003). Unless schools are adequately provided with good Educational Infrastructure and instructional materials, effective teaching and learning may not take place and students’ performance will not be satisfactory

A good Educational Infrastructure always supported the educational enterprise. Research had shown that clean and good air quality, good light, a small, comfortable, safe environment, building age and condition, quality of maintenance, temperature, and colour, could affect students’ health, safety as well as a sense of self and psychological state. Policymakers should be concerned about the relationship between school Educational Infrastructure, the teaching/learning process and students’ performance, not only because of health, security, and psychological issues, but also because the failure to create and maintain optimum Educational Infrastructure can undermine other efforts to reform education. Many researchers such as Harner (1974), Group (1999), Earthman (2002), Buckley, Schneider, & Shang (2004), Boese & Shaw (2005), Revathy Kumar & Johnston, Duran-Narucki, Blincoe (2008), explained that good learning environments are important for students’ academic achievement (Earthman G. I., 2002). If a school provides a quality environment for students, this will arrange mental preparedness to gain knowledge. The acquisition of skills is important for society.

The choice of equipment is important: it should be versatile, resistant, durable and easy to repair. User-based innovative processes should be at the heart of designing the physical learning environment of tomorrow’s schools. This process should take into account the global needs of students, teachers, school administrators and the community, while respecting the environment. According to Marko Kuuskorpi, (2011), a judicious selection of products and services that minimizes negative environmental impacts will also be of benefit to all. Sanoff  (2001), in his research on school building assessment methods, he says that school buildings had an impact on the mental development of a student; lie explains that schools that are properly build and attractive to look at, motivated the children to stay in school and learn as well. Akinwumiju and Orimoloye (1987), opined that education institutions from Nursery to University require buildings for their effective operations. Classrooms, offices, assembly halls, laboratories and staff quarters are needed. Important items like furniture for staff and students, books, science equipment, games and sport equipment should be adequate in number and they should all be in good conditions for schools to function properly. School environmental factors are those aspects within the pupils’ surrounding at school that influence the process of teaching and learning. The Educational Infrastructure is an important aspect of educational planning. Ajao (2001), quoted in Chuma (2012), says the quality of education not only depends on the teacher as reflected on performance of their duties, but also in the effective coordination of the school environment. It is believed that a well-planned school will gear up expected outcomes of education that will facilitate good social, political and economic emancipation, effective teaching and learning process and academic performance of pupils. Everything within the Educational Infrastructure has an influence on students’ performance. Educational infrastructure includes suitable spaces to learn. This is one of the most basic elements necessary to ensure access to education. School classrooms are the most common place in which structured learning takes place with groups of children. Adequate school infrastructure comprises of; sufficient space per child, adequate health and sanitary facilities like toilettes, water and electricity, spacious and free classrooms, playground etc.This research therefore takes insight into the factors that can Influence Educational infrastructure such as the learning infrastructure, co-curricular infrastructure, administrative infrastructure and social amenities.

 Concepts are some basic words that will be used in this work.  According to Grawitz (2000), concepts are, “Not only an aid to perceive but a means to conceive. The basic concepts used in our research work are; Learning Infrastructure, Co-curricular Infrastructure, Administrative Infrastructure and Social Amenities.

Learning Infrastructure

Learning infrastructure includes the school buildings, classrooms, laboratories, libraries, teaching/learning materials and technology. Sanoff  (2001), in his research on school building assessment methods, he says that school buildings had an impact on the mental development of a student, lie explains that schools that are properly build and attractive to look at motivated the children to stay in school and learn as well. A study by Chiriswa (2002), showed that schools that rarely perform well in national examinations cause their students to be de-motivated to work hard hence lose hope in pursuing higher education. Students from schools that perform well in national examinations have their students motivated to work hard and often focus their energies towards attaining good grade in school. Okoye and Uche (2004), stated that education is an equalizer where those who do well in schools are economically rewarded regardless of their economic background while those who do not do well are not rewarded. Kibui (2001), commented that education throughout the world has for many centuries emphasized a selective function regardless of available infrastructure in schools. A number of studies have shown that many school “systems, particularly those in urban and high-poverty areas, are plagued by poor planned infrastructures, decaying buildings that threaten the health, safety, and learning opportunities of students. Good facilities appear to b; an important precondition for student learning, provided that other conditions are present that support a strong academic program in the school. Mononen-Aaltonen, (2008), says “Learning environment” is a term used liberally in educational discourse because of the emerging use of information technologies for educational purposes on the one hand, and the constructivist concept of knowledge and learning on the other (The concept of the physical learning environment with respect to physical structures relates to spaces, equipment and tools within the school. In a school environment, learning infrastructure includes; classrooms, laboratories and libraries. Fisher (2006), conducted research on the impact of school infrastructures on student outcomes and behaviour in Georgia and established that academic achievement improves with improved building conditions, lighting levels air quality and temperatures. He further established a correlation between school class size and student achievements. Having large classes can affect students’ achievements. Mark (2002), in a study of factors affecting learners’ performance in schools in Canada: maintained that one cannot expect high level of students’ academic performance where school buildings are poorly located and substandard. He emphasized that well planned structures, clean, quiet, safe, comfortable and healthy environment are important components of successful teaching and learning. A study by Lackey (2001), in overcrowded schools in New York City found that students in such schools scored significantly lower on both mathematics and reading examinations than did similar students in under-utilized schools. In addition, when asked, students and teachers in overcrowded schools agreed that overcrowding negatively affected both classroom activities and instructional techniques. Laboratories and technical workshops are essential in teaching and learning process. The extent to which these infrastructures could enhance quality education depends on their location, their structures and facilities available in them. According to Ayaji, (2007), It is not unlikely that well planned learning infrastructures in terms of location, structures and facilities will affect facilitate teaching and learning process and as well as enhance good academic performance of the students. Gakuru (1982), indicates that the condition of school buildings is an important aspect in the learning process. For example, teachers are able to leave their teaching aids in classrooms with lockable doors and windows for as long as they wish. Those who are forced to pull them down at the end of every day feel unmotivated to use them. Buildings should be accessible by all learners including special needs learners

Co-Curricular Infrastructure

Co-curricular infrastructure refers to playgrounds, music room club spaces,  and theatre rooms where students attain their outdoor and recreational activities and watch films. According to Ng’anga (2003), Co-curricular infrastructure include fields, music rooms, theater rooms among others, they help the students to participate in different activities which helps in developing the learner physically, socially mentally and emotionally. The location and availability of adequate playing fields and necessary equipment are necessary for talent development. Khaemba (2007), says Co-curricular infrastructure should be well located and well-structured for nurturing talents in students. According to Stephens & Schaben (2002), modern approaches of education emphasize on all round development of the students. It is believed that unless balancing both the curricular and co-curricular activities is done the very purpose of education would be left unrealized.  Broh (2012), indicates that extracurricular activities when well organized and supported by the school management do promote academic performance in students.

Administrative Infrastructure

Administrative infrastructure constitutes the principal’s office for the principal who may have a private secretary and his/her office beside, the vice principals office, the discipline mistress/masters office, the staff room, school secretariat, bursary and the school canteen or the food shed. These facilities improve the physical learning environments. According to considered Marton and Booth (2007), not only technical specifications need to be elaborated, qualitative and adequacy aspects are also needs to be. Beer (2005), and Watson (2003), observed that offices in the school compound go a long way to improve learner performance. Sanitation facilities should include solid waste disposal, drainage and adequate water for personal hygiene and to clean toilets. According to Gogo (2002), Wilkens, White and Kinder (2003), materials used in constructions of school buildings and type of buildings determine the levels of cleanliness. (Kinder 2003), says when cleanliness in schools is maintained students get attracted and motivated and this will contribute to good academic performance of the students. When students, teachers and educational administrators are placed in well-equipped administrative buildings, they do not only attract onlookers but they are motivated to raise the banners of the school which is excellence in students’ performance. We must provide teachers with the appropriate facilities to encourage them to offer their very best to the students and encourage the students to improve on their performance.

Social Amenities

Social amenities refer to electricity, water, restrooms, canteens or food sheds and infirmaries. Electricity makes provision of lighting, one is able to operate technology, and so on. Research has indicated that in schools and classrooms, due to lack of electricity, one is not able to concentrate during the teaching/learning process especially when it is about to rain. The classrooms become dark. Neither the teachers nor learners can use the chalkboard. This does not improve learners’ performance. In the present existence, there have been formulations of measures to ensure that there is provision of electricity throughout the working day. This is facilitated by having generators and inverters. The school authorities need to pay adequate attention towards making provision of electricity in classrooms as well as offices. The reason being, technology is made use of to a major extent to carry out various tasks and research. When the construction of restrooms takes place, it is vital to ensure that there are proper amenities available, such as, clean water, paper towels, soaps etc. It has been found that there has been a decline in the enrolment of students in schools, where there is not proper provision of restroom facilities. We must provide learners with the appropriate facilities to encourage them to use their school toilets and to enable them to wash their hands thoroughly afterwards. This relies on all schools providing the basics of liquid soap, water and paper towels to ensure hand hygiene                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        compliance.  The state of the school toilets is often, however, the most concerning issue for learners. A written school toilet policy provides a powerful indication to learners and parents/carers that the school values and respects the health, safety and well-being of its learners. A policy enables a school to develop and maintain a shared philosophy and co-ordinated approach to their school toilets and how learners are allowed to use them. It encourages schools to audit the toilets properly and to take into account the needs of learners.

Canteens or food sheds are areas or rooms in a school where learners can buy chewable, food, writing materials etc. the provision of school canteen frees teachers and students from going out of the school campus within school hours in search of food, chewable and writing materials. With the provision of social amenities like water, electricity, restrooms and canteens, teachers and students stay concentrated in school till closing hours with no agitation or need to go out of school in search of these amenities. This enhances the teaching/learning process by so doing, improving students’ performance. In the nutshell, the conceptual framework is summarized as :

Figure  1: Conceptual Framework to Show the Conceptualization of the Variables of the Study

As shown in figure 1 above, the independent of the study includes; the learning Infrastructure (such as classrooms, laboratories and libraries), Co-curricular infrastructure (such as fields, music and theatre rooms among others) administrative infrastructure (such as; staff room, principals, vice principals, bursars’ offices among others) and social amenities (such as; electricity, water, restrooms and canteens). The dependent variable for this study will be students’ performance in national examinations.

According to Tanyi (2002), A theory is the result of long years study and research by a number of schools and consists of a set of assumptions from which endless hypothesis may be drawn in testing that body of knowledge. A theory is a set of interrelated variables which specify how and why the variable and rational statements are interrelated. The following theories will be used in the study.

The Systems Theory

The Systems theory of organizations was advanced by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy in 1951. This theory contends that all parts of an organization are interrelated such that changing one part of the system in a school affects other parts as well. The theory views school organization as a complex social system whose properties cannot be known from analysis of the constituent elements in isolation hence for effective management of the teaching/learning process, emphasis should shift from part to whole.  As applied to this study, the systems theory holds that the different factors in the system that influence the tlearningeaching/learning process must be managed together paying attention to all of them without overlooking some factors over the others in order to produce a common whole which in this case is effective teaching and . The performance of a system depends on how the elements work together and not how each element works independently. For students to perform well, all factors that influence their performance at school must be looked at.

The Classical Liberty Theory

The classical liberty theory was put forward by Rousseau between 1712 and 1778. The classical liberty theory states that each person is born with a great amount of capacity Thus educational systems should be designed so as to remove barriers of any nature ( infrastructural) in a person’s life  According to Rousseau, (the theory proponent), personality qualities should not jeopardize social equity so long as society rewards people according to their status. It follows those social institutions such as education institutions should attempt to create an enabling environment by having the Educational Infrastructure needed to enhance the teaching/learning process. According to Orodho (2003), the education institution should treat teachers and students equally by providing the needed facilities and teachers and students should take advantage of Educational Infrastructural opportunities and perform better in the teaching/learning process. There is therefore need to ensure adequate Educational Infrastructure to guarantee satisfactory performance of the students.

It is worth noting that our focus is on Educational Infrastructure and how it influences students’ performance. Also, how learning infrastructure, co-curricular infrastructure, administrative infrastructure and social amenities influence students’ performance. Schools with unconducive Educational Infrastructure turn not to enhance students’ performance.

Statement of the problem

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are goals that were established since 2002, during the millennium summit of the United Nations. Following the adoption of the United Millennium Declaration, the second goal was the achievement of the universal education.  If the government cannot achieve universal education as stipulated by the MDGs, without the provision of Educational  Infrastructure like well-constructed classrooms, playing grounds, toilets, school laboratories, libraries, dinning sheds etc.; learners who sit in overcrowded or poorly constructed classrooms as well as the teachers will not feel comfortable in the teaching/ learning process. Besides, learners who study without a school laboratory to practice their skills end up unsatisfied together with the teachers who finally end up only with a mastery of concepts without skills. Furthermore, learners may run out of the school campus, missing classes and looking for where they can ease themselves and can even have an accident in a rush to return to the classroom.In normal circumstances educational infrastructures consists of well-constructed, spacious and equipped classrooms, furnished school laboratories for practical’s, a multiple toilets, water and electricity, canteen, music room, administrative offices, the sports ground etc., which facilitates the teaching/learning process and improves students’ performance.

During the research work, the researcher discovered that in some schools, students’ performance was not encouraging, after observation, the researcher asked some questions to teachers and learners and varied answers were given.  Some teachers and learners said that they had no tables and limited number of chairs and benches; others had no school laboratories and some unequipped school laboratories. Besides, some schools had limited number of offices and toilets which made the learners to spend too much time outside waiting for their mates to finish using the toilets before they could use as well. Also, others had no sports ground. After getting all these varied answers and observation, the researcher sought to investigate the influence of Educational Infrastructure on students’ Academic performance. This work will contribute to the achievement of these goals, as educational infrastructure will be improved and made conducive thus improving the students’ performance.

Objectives of the study

Objectives are expectations that are planned to be achieved in a short term or in a long term. It is what the researcher wants to find out or investigate using the general and specific objectives.

General Objectives

To find out if Educational Infrastructure has an influence on Students’ Academic Performance.

Specific Objectives

To determine the relationship between Learning Infrastructure and Students’ Academic Performance.

To examine whether Co-curricular Infrastructure has an influence on Students’ Academic Performance.

To investigate whether Administrative Infrastructure have an influence on Students’ Academic Performance.

To determine whether Social Amenities has an influence on Students’ Academic Performance

 Research Questions

In our study, we shall use two types of research questions, namely: the general and the specific.

General Research Questions

Does educational infrastructure have an influence on students’ performance?

 Specific Research Questions

Do Learning Infrastructure have an influence on Students’ Academic Performance??

Do Co-curricular Infrastructures have an influence on students’ Academic performance? 

Does Administrative Infrastructure have an influence on students’ Academic performance?

Do Social Amenities have an influence on students’ Academic performance?