CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The quality of education is a pressing concern globally, with a significant focus on improving students learning outcomes (United Nations 2015). Learning outcomes are a critical measure of educational effectiveness, as they encompass the knowledge, skills and attitudes that students acquire through their educational experiences (BIGGS, 2003; Hattie, 2009). Research has constantly shown that students learning outcomes are influenced by a complex array of factors, including teaching methods, curriculum design, and assessment practices (Hattie, 2009; Marzano, 2007). Despite the importance of learning outcomes, many students worldwide continue to experience suboptimal educational experiences, resulting in inadequate preparation for the demands of the 21^st century (Partnership for 21^st century learning, 2015). In response, educators and researchers have sought to identify innovative teaching methods that can enhance students learning outcomes ( Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Johnson & Johnson, 2009).

One promising approach is collaborative learning, which involves students working together to achieve shared learning goals (Johnson & Johnson, 2009) . Collaborative learning has been shown to promote deeper learning, improve critical thinking and problem solving skills, and enhance student motivation and engagement (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Johnson & Johnson, 2009; Slavin, 2010). Collaborative learning strategies are essential in shaping students academic outcomes. In recent years, collaborative learning has gained prominence as an effective approach that enhances student engagements, critical thinking, and learning outcomes. However, the impact of collaborative learning on students learning outcomes of secondary schools students has been a topic of concern among educators, parents, policymakers.

This study aims to investigate the effects of collaborative learning strategies on students learning outcomes, with a particular focus on Public Secondary Schools in Bamenda II Municipality. By exploring the relationship between collaborative learning and learning outcomes, this study seeks to contribute to the development of evidence-based teaching practices that can enhance the quality of education globally.

Background of the Study

Historically Collaborative Learning strategies concept has its roots in the 19^{th century}, when educators like (Dewey 1916) and (Parker, 1894) emphasized the importance of social interaction and group work in the learning process. (Dewey, 1916) in particular, argued that learning is a social and collaborative process, where students learn best through active participation and interaction with others (Dewey, 1916). In his seminal book, Democracy and Education (1916), he argued that education should go beyond the mere transmission of knowledge and instead serve as a foundation for preparing individuals to participate actively in a democratic society. He believed that students learn best through social interaction, collaboration, and real-world experiences, rather than passive memorization. (Dewey, 1916) promoted experiential learning, emphasizing that students should engage in hands-on activities that connect classroom lessons to real-life situations.

 For him, learning was a social process, where students develop knowledge through teamwork, discussion, and cooperation. Viewing the classroom as a mini-democracy, he encouraged inclusive, student-centered education that fosters communication, respect for diverse viewpoints, and critical thinking .A key aspect of his philosophy was the role of the teacher, whom he saw as a facilitator rather than an authoritarian figure. Instead of dictating facts, teachers should guide students in exploring ideas, asking questions, and collaborating to find solutions. He also believed that failure is a valuable part of the learning process, as it encourages students to reflect, adapt, and grow. Furthermore, (Dewey,1916) saw education as essential to a functioning democracy, arguing that schools should not only prepare students for work but also cultivate their ability to think independently, engage in civic discussions, and contribute meaningfully to society. He opposed rigid, authoritarian teaching methods, advocating instead for inclusive, participatory learning that encourages curiosity and problem-solving. These ideas had a lasting impact on education, influencing progressive teaching methods, student-centered learning, and collaborative classroom models. His work laid the foundation for modern experiential and cooperative learning strategies, shaping approaches such as Montessori, project-based learning, and civic education programs. Ultimately, Democracy and Education remains a cornerstone of educational philosophy, reinforcing the belief that learning is most effective when it is active, social, and directly tied to real-world experiences (Dewey, 1916).

 Later In the early 20^th century, the concept of collaborative learning gained further momentum with the work of researchers like Thorndike (1913) and Allport (1924). Thorndike’s work on social learning theory highlighted the role of social interaction and imitation in the learning process (Thorndike, 1913). Allports (1924) work on group dynamics and social psychology further emphasized the importance of collaborative learning in achieving social and educational goals (Allport, 1924). The 1960s and 1970s saw a significant increase in research on collaborative learning, with the work of researchers like Johnson and Johnson (1975) and Aronson (1978). The Johnsons work on cooperative learning highlighted the importance of positive interdependence, individual accountability, and social skills in achieving collaborative learning goals (Johnson & Johnson, 1975). Aronsons work on jigsaw learning further emphasized the importance of cooperative learning in promoting social and educational outcomes (Aronson, 1978). In the 1980s and 1990s, research on collaborative learning continued to evolve, with the work of researchers like Brown (1992) and Hmelo- Silver (2004). Browns work on community of learners highlighted the importance of collaborative learning in promoting deep learning and understanding ( Brown, 1992), Hmelo- silvers work on problem based learning further emphasized the importance of collaborative learning in promoting critical thinking and problem solving skills (Hmelo-silver,2004).

Presently, collaborative learning has continued to grow, with the work of researchers like Mayer (2010) and Goldman (2010). (Mayers, 2010) work on multimedia learning highlighted the importance of collaborative learning in promoting deep learning and understanding (Mayer, 2010). Goldmans work on collaborative learning in technology-rich environments further emphasized the importance of collaborative learning in promoting social and educational outcomes (Goldman, 2010). Overall, the concept of collaborative learning has evolved significantly over the past two centuries, from its roots in social learning theory to its current applications in technology-rich environments. As research continues to grow in this area, it is clear that collaborative learning will remain a critical component of educational practice in the 21^st century.

Conceptually, Group work has been a topic of interest in educational and organizational contexts for many years and different authors have contributed varied perspectives on its effectiveness, advantages, challenges, and the dynamics it creates. (Dewey, 1930s) advocated for collaborative learning and group work as essential part of the learning process. He believed that education should be experiential and that students should actively engage in problem-solving within groups to foster critical thinking and democratic values. (Dewey, 1930) ideas laid the foundation for later progressive education methods, emphasizing the importance of active learning, interaction and social collaboration. However, he highlighted the importance of group work in developing problem-solving skills, critical thinking and a sense of community. He viewed group interaction as a way to bridge the gap between individual knowledge and collective intelligence. According to (Lewin, 1940) emphasized that behavior is function of the person and environment.( Lewin, 1940) suggested that groups influence individual behavior and he introduced group cohesion. This group work led to the development of techniques for team building and understanding behavior group behavior in organizational settings. He emphasized the importance of group cohesion, group norms and how they affect individual actions.

(Tuckman, 1965) developed the forming-storming-norming-performing model which identifies the stages groups typically go through as they develop.(Wheelan, 2009) He proposed that groups  go through a process of forming (initial stage) (Tuckman, 1965) ,(Johnson & Johnson, 2009) storming(conflict phase)(Tuckman, 1965),(Hackman, 2002) norming(resolution of conflicts) (Tuckman 1965),(Katzenbach & Smith, 1993) performing(optimal functioning), (Tukman, 1965). This model has become one of the most widely used frameworks for understanding how groups evolve over time. It highlights the importance of conflict resolution and the dynamics of group development. The model suggest that effective group work involves navigating challenges and leveraging strengths at different stages. It brings the importance of communication, leadership and shared goals. (Johnson and Johnson, 1980) focused on collaborative learning and its benefits. They emphasized the difference between collaborative learning and group work. According to them, collaborative learning is a structured form of group work where all members are interdependent and contribute to the success of the group. Their research provided evidence that collaborative learning improves academic achievement, (Johnson & Johnson, 1989) interpersonal relationships and psychosocial development. The brothers identified the importance of positive interdependent, individual accountability and group work. They further explained that successful group work requires careful planning and structuring of task to ensure that all members contribute effectively Johnson, Johnson & Johnson (1999).

In the 21^st century, group work has continued to evolve with emphasis on digital collaboration, diversity, and the integration of technology into group interactions (Hmelo-silver, 2004). Scholars emphasize the importance of virtual teams, cross-cultural collaboration, and the role of technology in facilitating group work in diverse settings. Modern group work often involve remote collaboration, digital communication, and managing teams across time zones and cultures (Johnson & Johnson, 2009).

Peer teaching, where students teach other students.  (Piaget, 1920) believed that children learn best when they engage in active problem-solving and that interactions with peers could lead to cognitive growth. (Piaget, 1920) theories about cognitive conflict and peer interaction have indirectly supported the idea that peer teaching is beneficial for learning, as students may challenge each other’s ideas and stimulate cognitive development. According to (Piaget, 1920) peer teaching promotes cognitive conflict and help students to engage with each other’s thought processes, fostering deeper understanding. (Vygotsky, 1978) zone of proximal development is highly relevant to peer teaching. He argued that learning is a social process and through interactions with more knowledgeable peers, students can perform task they wouldn’t be able to do alone. His work confirmed the value of peer teaching, where more capable peers act as “more knowledgeable others” who can scaffold the learning of their peers, helping them reach higher levels of understanding. Peer teaching, in the vygotskian sense, is based on scaffolding and the ZPD. It relies on collaborative learning, where a more knowledgeable peer provides support, allowing the other student to internalize new skills or concepts.

(Dewey, 1930) who advocated for progressive education, saw peer learning as an important aspect of experiential learning. He believed that interaction between students could lead to better learning outcomes because students are encouraged to articulate and defend their ideas in collaboration with peers.( Dewey, 1930) focus on experiential learning indirectly supports peer teaching, as students learn by engaging with each other which mirrors key aspects of peer teaching and collaborative learning. He emphasized that peer teaching promotes critical thinking and problem-solving as students teach and learn through dialogue and shared experiences

(Johnson and Johnson, 1965) well known for their work on collaborative learning, also explored peer teaching.  They emphasized that peer teaching is a form of collaborative learning, which fosters both academic achievement and interpersonal skills. They believed peer teaching could enhance social interaction and academic outcomes if structured properly. The (johnsons, 1965) added to the existing literature on peer teaching by providing structured models for collaborative learning. They advocated that for peer teaching to be effective, it must involve positive interdependence, individual accountability, and a supportive social climate. The (johnsons, 1965) stressed that peer teaching requires collaborative learning environments, where both the teacher and learner benefit. They highlighted that peer teaching should focus on interaction, accountability, and shared goals for successful outcomes

Recently, with the rise of digital learning platforms and online education, peer teaching has taken new forms. Studies suggest that virtual peer teaching and peer feedback are effective in developing both subject matter expertise and collaboration skills. (Boud, Cohen, & Sampson, 2014; Falchikov, 2001; Topping, 2005) Technology has allowed peer teaching to become more accessible, with students learning from one another asynchronously or in digital environments. Recent trends have expanded peer teaching to global learning communities, where students from different backgrounds collaborate. This has reinforced the view that peer teaching fosters cross cultural communication and global collaboration. Today, it involves digital tools for collaboration, asynchronous feedback, and the development of 21^st century skills such as digital literacy collaboration and global perspectives (Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982). The concept of peer teaching has evolved from a supplementary activity in early education to a critical strategy in both traditional and digital learning environments (Colvin, 2015). The characteristics of peer teaching have expanded with a focus on not just cognitive and academic development, but also on social interaction, digital collaboration, and cross-cultutral understanding(Gorman, 2017) (Topping, 2005).

Project-based learning (PBL) has been a key pedagogical approach for many decades, with various scholars contributing insights into its effectiveness, benefits and implementation. John (Dewey, 1916) laid the foundation for the development of project based learning. He believed that education should be student centered, focusing on real-life experiences, and that learning is most effective when students engage in hands-on projects. He argued that students should learn by doing, exploring and creating rather than passively receiving information. Deweys, (1916) emphasis on experiential learning influenced later developments in PBL. He underscored the importance of critical thinking, problem solving and collaboration, all central to project based approaches. His perspective emphasized that project based learning should involve real world task, students engagement, and a focus on collaborative learning. He also advocated for reflection, where students could connect their experiences with theoretical concepts (Dewey, J, 1938)

(Piaget, 1950) emphasized that students learn best when they are actively engaged in problem solving and exploration. Though he didn’t directly develop project based learning, his ideas on cognitive development and active learning align with PBL’s focus on student driven inquiry. (Piagets, 1950) theories confirmed the value of hands-on learning through projects that allow students to manipulate and interact with materials, test hypotheses and discover knowledge on their own. It emphasized the importance of cognitive conflict and discovery learning .which is central to project based learning. His ideas on constructivism encouraged educators to design projects that allow students to explore, reflect, and build knowledge actively.

(Papert, 1980) argued that learning is most effective when students build meaningful projects. He extended the ideas to technology, emphasizing that learning by doing particularly with technology could be enhanced through project based activities. (Paperts, 1980) work confirm the power of hands on projects in fostering deep learning, especially when students create projects with digital tools. He also highlighted the importance of student autonomy and personalized learning. (Papert, 1980) emphasized that projects should allow students to design, create and reflect on their own work, often using technology. He believed that learning is more effective when students are engaged in the creation of real-world product that hold personal significance.

Presently in the 21^st century, PBL has continued to evolve, particularly with the integration of technology and the focus on global education. (Bandura, 1977) emphasize interdisciplinary projects, and the development of 21^st century skills such as critical thinking creativity and thinking creativity and communication. There is also an emphasis on student’s autonomy and the development of problem solving skills in diverse, real world contexts. (Anderson, 1983) Contemporary views have emphasized the flexibility and adaptability of PBL in various educational settings, the incorporation of digital technologies, such as online collaboration platforms and multimedia tools, has further expanded PBL’s reach and effectiveness (Harris, 2015)

Key characteristics of PBL such as collaboration, real world relevance, and active problem solving have remained central to the approach, though the way it is implemented has adapted to meet the demands of the modern educational landscape.

Students learning outcomes from the 20^th to the 21^st century reflects significant shifts in educational philosophies, pedagogical approaches, and the integration of technology. These changes have been influenced by societal needs, advancement in educational psychology, and global shifts in the economy and workforce. In the early 20^th century, education systems largely focused on basis literacy and numeracy, with emphasis on rote memorization and teacher-centered instruction. (Dewey, 1930) began to shift focus towards student centered learning and critical thinking, (Dewey, 1930) argued that education should not only transmit knowledge but also prepare students to be active, thoughtful participants in society. By the late 20^th century, the outcome based education (OBE) model gained prominence, particularly in higher education. This approach emphasized the need for explicit, measurable outcomes. One of the shifts was from knowledge acquisition to knowledge creation where students are now expected to generate new ideas, products, and solutions, rather than simply absorbing information. From individualized to collaborative learning, here it was more of collaborative problem solving and teamwork. From standardized to personalized learning where with the help of technology, learning is becoming more tailored to individual student’s needs, abilities, and learning styles.

Theoretically, a number of related and relevant theories will be used to explain the variables under investigating the effects of collaborative learning strategies on students learning outcomes. The starting point will be the (Tuckman’s, 1965) stages of group work development, which was developed by (Tuckam, 1965) where he outlines the stages that groups typically go through as they form and develop. In his theory, he spoke on Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning. Where he said in the forming stage, group members are polite and get to know each other. There’s little conflict, and the group is focused on understanding the goals and roles of each member. Meanwhile in the storming stage, he said as group members begin to feel more comfortable, differences in opinions and ideas may arise.(Tuckman, 1965) This stage characterized by conflicts or disagreements as individuals assert themselves and challenge each other. In norming, the group starts to resolve conflicts, establish norms and values, and develop stronger relationships. They begin to work more cohesively towards common goals. In the fourth stage of Tuckmans (1965) theory, he said at the performing stage that the group is functioning effectively, focusing on achieving its goals. There is a high level of collaboration and productivity and the group works well together. Finally in Bruce’s last stage adjourning, (which means added later) is the final stage when the group has completed its task or goal. This theory assumes that Groups go through distinct stages where each stage is necessary for the group to progress and achieve its goals. Another assumption is each stage has unique characteristics, groups must navigate conflict to achieve success.( Tuckman, 1965)

Tuckman’s (1965) stages of group work development is highly relevant to investigating collaborative learning strategies because it helps in understanding group dynamics in collaborative learning. This means it provides a framework to observe and understand how students function as a group which is central to any collaborative learning strategy. Secondly, it helps in assessing collaborative learning strategies. That is it helps to evaluate how well a collaborative strategy supports group development. Thirdly, there is application in research or practice. Tuckman’s 1965 stages of group work development can be used as a lens to observe group progression. 

A well-known theory related to peer teaching (Vygotsky, 1978) social development theory, particularly his Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) where he emphasize the importance of peer teaching and social interaction in learning, suggesting that the students learn best when they can work with more knowledgeable learners, such as peers, who can guide them through task they cannot accomplish alone but can achieve with some assistance. In the context of peer teaching. Peer teaching allows students to provide assistance within each other’s ZPD, fostering learning in collaborative environments. Scaffolding in this theory is support given during the learning process, which can be gradually removed as the learner becomes more competent (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). It assumes that, Social interaction is essential for learning, it assumes that learners have a zone of proximal development where learners learn best when they are working within their ZPD. One of the assumptions is that learning is a socially mediated process.   This theory is relevant because , collaborative learning places students within each other’s ZPDs allowing peers to support and challenge one another. Secondly, vygotskys 1978 theory of social development aligns with collaborative learning by emphasizing dialogue, discussion, and group task allowing students to construct knowledge together. Thirdly, in collaborative settings, students use language that enhance critical thinking and comprehension. And lastly, when investigating collaborative learning strategies, the use of ZPD framework csn be used to analyze how peer interactions support or hinder learning.

A key theory that supports Project Based Learning is (Piaget’s,1950) Constructivist Theory of Learning, particularly as articulated in his works from the  (1950) with the work of  Vygotsky’s (1978) which states that Children actively construct their knowledge through interactions with the environment. He laid emphasis that cognitive development occurs through a series of stages as children engage with and adapt to their surroundings. This theory assumes that there is active learning which constructing their own knowledge and understanding through experience.(piaget, 1954). Another assumption is constructing knowledge which is done by understanding rather than simply receiving it from others which leads to the next assumption Schema development which organize and make sense of their experiences. This theory has relevance for collaborative learning strategies and student learning performances because it encourages active learning, Encourages group-based problem-solving, which is central to collaborative learning, mental structures and framework, integrates new information into existing schemes, adjust existing skills to incorporate new information to adapt to new experiences. While (Vygotsky, 1978) work focused on the social aspect of learning, especially the idea that learning is enhanced through social interaction, language and collaboration. This is central to project based learning as students often work in teams to solve problems and share knowledge. The next relevant theory is

The Social Interdependence theory developed by the Johnson brothers where they talk on how social relationships within groups impact learning and outcomes (Johnson, 2003). In their theory they made mention of key concepts like; positive interdependence, individual accountability, promitive interaction, and group processing (Johnson, 2003). They made us to understand the connection of these concepts to students learning outcomes which is; it improves achievement, development of social skills, higher motivation and engagement (Johnson, 2003).This theory assumes that, social interdependence exist which can be positive or negative. Social interdependence exist when individuals work together to achieve a common goal (Johnson& Johnson, 2009). Another assumption is that interdependence affects motivation as individuals are more motivated when working towards a shared goal (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). The relevance of Social Interdependence theory is highly relevant to investigating the effects of collaborative learning because it provides  a framework that explains how collaborative learning environments, through the mechanism of cooperation, accountability and interaction leads to improved students learning outcomes both academically and socially.

Contextually, In Cameroon, collaborative learning is an effective teaching method that encourages students to work together in small groups to achieve shared goals. This approach can be particularly beneficial in promoting teamwork, critical thinking and problem solving skills among students. The Northwest region of Cameroon, particularly Bamenda, faces significant challenges in its educational system. One of the major concerns is the lack of effective teaching and learning strategies, which hinders students learning outcomes. Research has shown that collaborative learning strategies can have a positive impact on students learning outcomes (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Johnson & Johnson, 2009). In Cameroon, studies have also highlighted the benefits of collaborative learning, including improved academic achievement, critical thinking, and problem solving skills (Tamanji, 2015; Ngoran, 2017).

One Collaborative learning strategy that has been found to be effective in Cameroon is group work. Group work involves students working together in small groups to achieve a common goal. Research has shown that group work can promote social skills, teamwork, and communication among students (Tamanji, 2015). In Bamenda, group work has been used in various educational settings, including primary and secondary schools. For example, a study by Ngoran (2017) found that group work improved students learning outcomes in Mathematics in Bamenda.

Another collaborative learning strategy that has been found to be effective in Cameroon is Peer teaching which involves students teaching each other a concept or skill. Research has shown that peer teaching can promote active learning, critical thinking and problem solving skills (Hmelo-silver, 2004). In Bamenda, peer teaching has been used in various educational settings, including universities and colleges for example a study by Tamanji (2015) found that peer teaching improved students understanding of complex concepts in biology in Bamenda.

Project based learning is another collaborative learning strategy that has been found effective in Cameroon. Project base learning involves students working on real world projects that require critical thinking, problem solving, and collaboration. Research has shown that project based learning can promote deep learning, critical thinking, and problem solving skills (Hmelo-silver, 2004). In Bamenda, project based learning has been used in various educational settings including primary and secondary schools. For example, a study by Ngoran (2017) found that project based learning improved students learning outcomes in science in Bamenda.

In as much as collaborative learning takes place in some schools in Bamenda Municipality, there are some Challenges in Learning Strategies. There’s Lack of teacher training in collaborative methods. Insufficient preparation or professional development of educators in teaching strategies that promote collaboration among students. Resistance to change from traditional methods. The reluctance to adopting new teaching approaches, strategies or practices especially in education due to preference. Inadequate learning materials. Resources required for effective teaching and learning are insufficient, outdated, or lacking altogether. These materials can include textbooks, digital tools, teaching aids and others. The Cameroon education policy has emphasized student-centered learning (National Education Policy, 2013), yet implementation remains inconsistent.

Statement of the Problem

Learning outcomes are a global concern due to their impact on individuals, communities, and societies as a whole. Ensuring that all students achieve high- quality learning outcomes is essential for promoting economic growth, social mobility, global citizenship, and human capital development. The Cameroon educational system faces significant challenges in promoting effective learning outcomes among students. Despite efforts to improve education, student’s academic achievements remains a major concern (Tamanji, 2015; Ngoran, 2017). Research has shown that collaborative learning strategies can have a positive impact on students learning outcomes (Hmelo-silver, 2004; Johnson & Johnson, 2009). However, there is a need to investigate the effectiveness of collaborative learning strategies in the Cameroonian context (Bourgeois, 2015)

In Group work settings, a common issue is the imbalance of contribution. Where certain members dominate the task while others contribute minimal or not at all which can lead to inefficiency, and lack of cohesion with the team instantly affecting the quality of the final product (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Additionally, differences in work styles, communication gaps and unclear role assignments can excavate these challenges, making the group work process disorganized and stressful. Inefficiency in group work can be caused by; lack of clear communication, unclear roles and responsibilities, lack of motivation or commitment.  (Tamanji, 2015).

Peer teaching on the other hand, while it can be an effective learning strategy, it often encounter challenges such as unequal participation, lack of teaching expertise and inconsistent quality of instruction. Which can hinder its overall effectiveness (Hmelo-silver, 2004). These issues impact the learning outcomes for both the peer educators and the students receiving the instruction. Issues like lack of proper training, unequal participation, inconsistent quality, limited feedback and support (Falchikov, 2001).

Project based learning is an instructional approach where students learn by engaging in real world projects. However, the effectiveness of PBL can be hindered by challenges such as inadequate resources, uneven group dynamics, poor time management and lack of clear guidance which may negatively impact student learning outcomes and project quality. Causes for this could be; inadequate resources, uneven group dynamics, time management issues, lack of clear guidance (Thomas, 2000).

 Research Objective

Main Research Objective

• Investigating the effects of Collaborative Learning Strategies on Students Learning Outcomes in public secondary schools in Bamenda II Municipality.

 Specific Research Objectives

• To determine the effect of group-work on students learning outcomes in public secondary schools in Bamenda II Municipality.
• To assess the effect of peer teaching on students learning outcomes in public secondary schools in Bamenda II Municipality.
• To investigate the effects of project-based learning on students learning outcomes in public schools in Bamenda II Municipality.

 1.4 Research Questions

 Main Research Question

• What is the effect of collaborative learning strategies on students learning outcomes in public secondary schools in Bamenda II Municipality?

 Specific Research Questions

• How does group-work learning impact students learning outcomes in public secondary schools in Bamenda 2 Municipality?
• What is the effect of peer teaching on students learning outcomes in public secondary schools in Bamenda 2 Municipality?
• What is the effect of project based learning on students learning outcomes in public secondary schools in Bamenda 2 Municipality?