Background to the study

Environmental hazard is an event which has the potential to threaten the surrounding natural environment and adversely affect people’s health. Globally, Environmental hazards, such as flooding, landslides, earthquakes, and wildfires, are pressing issues that significantly affect populations worldwide. The increasing frequency and intensity of these events can be attributed to climate change, urbanization, deforestation, and poor land management practices. A population is considered to be vulnerable when it is at risk of exposure to an environmental hazard and when it has insufficient resources to prepare for or cope with (Rygel et al., 2006). These hazards can include natural hazards such as flooding, earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunami and events related to climate change such as droughts, wildfires and rise in sea level, as well as air pollution, water pollution, infectious disease and other environmental hazards. People can be more vulnerable to environmental hazards if they are: more exposed to environmental hazards; more sensitive to the effects and less able to anticipate, cope with, or recover from the effects (Danida et al.,2000).

In India and the Philippines, flooding and landslides have severely affected vulnerable regions. For instance, in 2019, India experienced severe floods that displaced millions of people, leading to massive evacuations and humanitarian aid responses. More so, the Philippines have faced a series of landslides triggered by heavy rainfall, which led to loss of lives and destruction of infrastructure. These communities have mobilized by creating local disaster response teams and engaging in preparedness training to enhance resilience against future events (UNDRR, 2020).

In Africa, flooding and landslides are significant hazards that affect countries like Sudan and Uganda. In Sudan, the 2020 floods resulted in widespread displacement of people and damage to agriculture, with local communities taking action by forming support networks to assist affected families. Residents have also engaged in disaster risk reduction initiatives, including the construction of dikes and improved drainage systems (Khair, 2020).

In Uganda, there have been the occurrence of landslides in mountainous regions, prompting the government to implement early warning systems and community education programs on safe land use practices (Turyahikayo et al., 2021). In addition, the 2024 landslides in Uganda’s capital Kampala from a large garbage dump resulted to the death of about 17 people as rescuers continued to dig for survivors (Reuters,2024).

In Cameroon, poverty make communities search for land on areas prone to hazards such as flash floods and landslides. To exacerbate the problem, the houses built in these fragile areas are often very weak. This makes them highly vulnerable to earthquakes, tropical cyclones and floods, further increasing the tendency of the poor to suffer loss. Furthermore, flash floods have caused deaths and damage to houses built in illegal settlements in Limbe and the Bamboutous plateau (Ayonghe et al. 2004). Their very low resilience means that even small disaster impacts are translated into poverty outcomes (UNISDR 2011). The inability to enable access to safe land, enforce strict building codes and prevent people from building in hazard prone areas forms the disaster risk in many urban and rural areas. Efforts to reduce disaster risks must be built into legislation and systematically integrated into policies, plans and programs for sustainable development and poverty reduction (WCDR 2005).

In Douala, Cameroon, there has been severe challenges faced from flooding and landslides, especially during the rainy season. For instance, the 2020 floods in the Littoral region caused widespread destruction, affecting infrastructure and displacing of people. Local communities in Douala mobilized to perform emergency evacuations and set up temporary shelters (Ondoa et al., 2021).  In addition, community-based organizations are working with the government to raise awareness about land use management to mitigate landslide risks in vulnerable hilly areas. (Tiyou et al., 2019).

In Limbe, Cameroon, Flooding and landslides, aggravated by a lack of storm water drainage systems, which constitute some of the particular planning issues faced by the Limbe Municipal Council. Ndille and Belle (2014) stated that the major flood events in Limbe city occurred in 1990, 2000, 2001 and 2007. Nonetheless, Limbe city was hit annually by floods, with the disaster of 26 and 27 June 2001 recording 24 dead, 330 houses completely or partially destroyed, 3,000 people affected, a thousand homeless, and over 18 neighborhoods affected (Ndille & Belle, 2014).

 In 2018, a heavy rainstorm occurred in Limbe I, Municipality, which caused massive flooding and triggered a landslide that led to the death of at least 5 persons, injuries to many, and rendered others homeless (Ndi, 2018). Residents participated in clean-up campaigns to remove debris and blocked drainage systems to prevent future flooding (Nyang et al., 2021). Furthermore, initiatives have been undertaken to educate the population on the risks of landslides, particularly in vulnerable zones near the slopes, encouraging the planting of vegetation to stabilize the soil (Ekwu et al., 2020).

 Statement of Research Problem

 To Begin, the category of environmental hazards that affect Limbe I municipality include flooding and landslides. These hazards occurred in some areas in Limbe I municpicality such as Down beach, Clerk’s quarter, Mabeta- Newlayout and Upper Mawoh. The worst recorded event occurred in June 2001, when floods and landslides took the lives of some 30 persons, left over 2000 people homeless, and destroyed property and social amenities including roads and telephone lines (Aka et al., 2001). In July 2023, continuous heavy rainfall resulted in flooding in down beach and landslides in Mabeta and Mawoh neighborhoods. The neighborhood mostly affected were church street which affected 700 people, Mabeta Newlayout, Upper Mawoh which affected 400 people and Down Beach which affected 500 people, making it a total of about 1600people directly affected by the flooding (IFRC, 2023).

The Mabeta-1 landslide of June 2001 was the biggest and most disastrous landslide. Over 100,000m3 of soil turned to mud by rain and ground water was displaced in a quasi-North-South direction for some 250m. From the line of surviving houses on the western side of the scarp, it was noted that furthest up-slope houses were located at about 108m altitudes (Buh, 2009). On July 2023, heavy rains led to the death of people who were killed by a landslide in the Upper-Mawoh neighborhood in Limbe I, Municipality (IFRC, 2023).

Some drivers of environmental hazards in Limbe I may include; Climate change and global warming, which can lead to extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and increased temperatures; transportation, agriculture, and waste disposal; Population growth and urbanization, which can put pressure on natural resources and lead to habitat destruction; Poor land use planning, which may lead to development in environmentally sensitive areas; Inadequate waste management and disposal practices, leading to contamination of air, water, and soil. Just to name a few.

According to a study by Li et al. (2018), flooding and landslides in Limbe I, Municipality have resulted to the displacement of residents, destruction of agricultural land, loss of livestock, and disruption of local economies. The authors emphasize the need for proactive measures to mitigate the impact of these environmental hazards on community livelihoods, such as early warning systems, proper land use planning, and community-based disaster risk management strategies.

More so, research by Ndi et al. (2019) highlights the negative effects of flooding and landslides on community livelihood in Limbe I, Municipality, including the loss of income-generating activities, increased food insecurity, and reduced access to basic services such as clean water and healthcare. The authors argue that addressing the underlying causes of these environmental hazards, such as deforestation and poor land management practices, is crucial to protecting community livelihoods in the long term.

According to research by Bichet et al. (2017), households in disaster-prone areas often use various coping strategies to recover from environmental hazards such as flooding and landslides in Limbe I, Municipality. These strategies may include earning from different sources, engaging in community-based savings and lending initiatives, and rebuilding infrastructure using locally available materials. The authors emphasize the importance of social capital and community networks in facilitating recovery efforts and supporting vulnerable households in times of crisis.

In a study by Nkeng et al. (2020), the role of community-based organizations in disaster recovery is highlighted. These organizations often play a crucial role in organizing efforts, providing support to affected households, and advocating for long-term solutions to mitigate the impact of environmental hazards. The authors argue that fostering strong community ties and collaboration can enhance the resilience of households and communities in the face of future disasters.

Furthermore, research by Ngam et al. (2018) examines the importance of sustainable land use practices in mitigating the impact of environmental hazards on community livelihood. By promoting agro ecological farming techniques, reforestation efforts, and disaster-resilient infrastructure development, households and communities can reduce their vulnerability to flooding and landslides and enhance their capacity to recover from these disasters.

Research Questions

Main Research Question

What are the impacts of environmental hazards on population actions in Limbe I, Municipality?

 Specific Research Question

• What is the spatio-temporal evolution of environmental hazards in Limbe I, Municipality?
• What are the effects of environmental hazards on community livelihoods of residents in Limbe I, Municipality?
• What are the strategies employed by households and the community to recover from environmental hazards in Limbe I, Municipality?

Main Research Objective

The main objective of this study is to assess the impact of environmental hazards on population actions in Limbe I, Municipality.

Specific Research Objective

• To analyze the spatio-temporal evolution of environmental hazards in Limbe I, Municipality
• To examine the effects of environmental hazards on livelihoods of residents in Limbe I, Municipality
• To evaluate the strategies employed by households and the community to recover from environmental hazards in Limbe I, Municipality.