ABSTRACT

Climate is continually changing and the future will observe changes in sea level rise, intense storms, increase temperature, heavy precipitation events, heat waves and an extension of drought events, all these as evidence of the changing climate. This has resulted to an increase in the frequency and duration of several hazards including floods, landslides, coastal erosion and strong winds(Tonados) thereby increasing the vulnerability of households to these hazards. Despite the fact that climate change is the main cause of these hazards, human activities such as deforestation, extension of occupation on hillslopes, poor waste disposal and blocked drianage systems has increase the rate of these hazards occurrence and households vulnerability. Vulnerability is measured interms of exposure, sensitivity and adaptation. The main research objective guiding this study was to comparatively assess the level of households vulnerability to climate change-related hazards in the coastal towns of Limbe and Tiko. This was achieved with the help of quantitative statistics which was the main research method used (field obsevation, questionnaires and satallite image interpretation/analysis) and qualitative research method to support the main method (interviews) within the sample site of Kie, Mbonjo, Makuka, Down Beach, Mirama Beach, Ngeme Beach, New town and Limbe camp in Limbe and Mukuru Beach, Mami Likomba Beach, Kuwait Beach, Likomba, Mutengene, Dibanda, New Layout, and Quatter Rubber in Tiko. A chi square test showed that climate change has led to an increase in the frequency of hazard occurrence within the study. On the basis to determine which amongst the two localities is more vulnerable to climate change-related hazards, a non parametric chi square was run against the three main components of vulnerability which are exposure, sensitivity and adaptation. It was found that Limbe is more exposed, more sensitive and has more adaptive measures unlike Tiko with least exposure, sensitivity and adaptation.The combination of all these three main variables determines vulnerability as the locality with the highest value which is Limbe in this case was considered more vulnerable to climate change-related hazards than Tiko with a smaller score. Sustainable resillience to hazards can only be achieved if the households, councils and government priortised resillience as a key components to hazards management through the proposed resillience schemed proposed in this study inorder for us to have an emerging Cameroon come 2035.

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the background of the study which is based principally on hazards caused by climate change, their magnitude of occurrence, frequency of occurrence and resilience capacity of communities in adapting to these hazards. It also contains the aim, research questions, objectives, hypothesis, scope and significance of the study and the description of the study area.

1.1Background of the study

According to National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), (2020) Climate change refers to the shift in the global weather phenomena associated with an increase in the average global temperature. The global temperature has been increasing for many decades now since the 1850-1900, where reliable temperature records began. In 2016 there was an increase of 0.8⁰^C as compared to 0.68⁰^C in 2017 owing to the boost from the El Nino event.

Bezaine (2018) and NASA (2020) indicated that the main cause of climate change is human action through the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation for any reason (agriculture and urbanisation). This adds the quantity of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere, thereby increasing the greenhouse effects (depletion of Ozone layer causing short waves from the sun to reach the earth but prevent long waves from the earth to go back to space), resulting in global warming. These greenhouse gases are produced naturally but human activities increases their concentration in the rate CO₂ 64%, CH ₄17%,  fluorinated gases  by13% and nitrous oxide by 6%.

The IPCC (2007) report cited in Pachauri and Reisingers (2007) have demonstrated that the climate is continually changing and the future will observe changes in sea level rise, intense storms, heavy precipitation events, heat waves and an extension of drought events, all these as evidence of the changing climate. The climatic extreme events are considered hazardous when they result in loss of lives, settlement destruction, social disruption and economic hardships leading to famine and a decrease in the Gross Domestic Product of a country. Recent literature indicate that the problem is getting less critical because of massive adaptation strategies in disaster management though there are significant barriers The developing countries and poor population of every country are the most vulnerable because they have the least capacity (management strategies) to adapt and reduce the intensity of the risk (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2013).

Climate and climate change-related hazards such as floods, storms, landslides, coastal erosion, and drought have served as triggering events of more than 75% of the disasters that have globally occurred over the past decades and still occurring today. Proportionately, these disasters affect the developing countries most and especially the poorest in all countries (Amos et al., 2015).

Carthy et al. (2001) notes that the term vulnerability was originally used in disaster management studies to assess the impact and effects caused by the disaster. But now, with growing knowledge and understanding in the definition of vulnerability, it is used in many disciplines nowadays. Vulnerability refers to the extent to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change (which includes mean climate, climate variability and climatic extremes) and it depends on the function of the character, magnitude and rate of climatic variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity and its adaptive capacity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001). In climate science the term vulnerability was first used in 1996 by the IPCC to assess the effect of climate change issues. 

According to the IPCC (2007) report, global temperature has been continually increasing, there by leading to a shift in the precipitation pattern over the 20^th Century, the mean annual global surface temperature is projected to increase from 1 – 3.5⁰C by the end of the 21^st Century. This will account for a rise in the mean global sea level by 15-95cm. all these increases are expected to trigger climate change related hazards such as floods, storm surges, landslide, salt water intrusion, droughts, desertification, and tornados.

Over the years, most of the world’s population have been living along coastal areas which are highly susceptible to these climate change-related hazards owing to their high level of exposure. Between 1970 and 2014, more than two million people died, accounting for 56.6% of the total deaths in the world due to disasters. Asia and the Pacific recorded the highest cases especially in Bangladesh, Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia which are ranked as the first four most affected/occurrence places in the world. The remaining part of the world recorded 43.4%, indicating that, Asia and the Pacific with other coastal locations globally suffer the most from natural hazards (Economic and Social Commision for Asia Pacific, 2015).

These hazards have caused drastic changes on the natural environment and huge loses such as the prolonged flooding. In 2018, thousands of people around the world lost their lives and properties to natural disasters (Claire, 2018). The Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disasters in Belgium as cited by Claire (2018), noted 10 deadliest disaster including the September flooding in Nigeria which recorded 200 deaths, 13000 homes destroyed, one-third of Nigeria’s 36 states  were affected. Also, she recorgnises the fact that Japan on its part also lost more than 200 people in July due to the torrential rainfall and landslides. In addition to her statistics, India recorded 361 deaths owing to the august moonsoon flooding especially the population in the southern Indian state of Kerala. A 7.5 magnitude earthquake and 20-foot tsunami killed over 2783 and rendering 33000 people homeless in Indonesia.

UNISDR (2013), apprehend that over the past half century, many of the drivers of vulnerability and exposure to natural hazards can be found in underlying socio-economic attributes and trends such as poverty and inequality, demographic changes, urbanization, governance structures, infrastructural investments and the unsustainable use of natural resources. The developing countries and poor population of every country are the most vulnerable because they have the least capacity (management strategies) to adapt and reduce the intensity of the risk.

Like in many countries in Africa and the world at large, Cameroon has a long coastline that is colonized by a significant proportion of humans for various livelihood purposes. These populations are equally exposed to the effects of climate change. Floods and coastal erosion are a major concern in Cameroon especially in urban towns and coastal areas such as  Limbe, Yaounde, Douala, Buea, Kribi and Kumba. Limbe and Tiko which are very attractive towns owing to the natural beauty of the sea, are vulnerable to climate change-related hazards of such as floods, coastal erosion, landslides and salt water intrusion. The degree of vulnerability could, however, vary from one town to another, thus necessitating a comparative study such as the current one.

1.2 Problem statement

Fako Division is known for recurrent of climate-induced hazards and whose implications are often hard and striking on the city dwellers such as lost of lives and properties. As if not enough, current urbanization rates in Cameroonian towns continue to increase the vulnerability of the population to these hazards, through limited adaptation strategies, poor construction materials used in homes and roads constructions, limited health facilities, and poverty. Increase city development have been compounding new factors for influencing and increasing city temperatures worldwide through conversion of land cover to various land uses..

However, city development in Cameroonian towns remains one characterized by unplanned development and occupation of city environment for different uses that are often incompatible. The consideration of the actual vulnerabilities extent (exposure, sensitivity and adaptation) of households to climate change-related hazards within the towns of Tiko and Limbe therefore becomes essential considering that climate change is inevitable.

It is as a result that this research seeks to assess household vulnerability to climate change-related hazards in the towns of Limbe and Tiko in Cameroon. So as to suggest suitable mitigating measures to these hazards through design of better adaptation strategies and hazard planning framework for these cities towards resilience and sustainability.

1.3 Research questions

This research seeks to answer the following research questions;

1.3.1 Main question

The main research question is:

What are the levels of vulnerabilities of households between the towns of Limbe and Tiko to climate change-related hazards?

1.3.2 Specific questions

The specific research questions  include;

What are the frequencies of various climate change-related hazards plaguing the towns of Limbe and Tiko?

How exposed and sensitive are households in the towns of Tiko and Limbe to these climate change-related hazards?

What type of adaptation measures have been put in place to mitigate the effects of these hazards?

What possible mitigating measures can best be applicable in these areas?

1.4 Research objectives

This research has the following objectives;

1.4.1 Main objective

The main objective of this work is to comparatively assess the levels of household vulnerability to climate change-related hazards in the coastal towns of Limbe and Tiko.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

This research has the following specific objectives

       To investigate the frequency of various climate change-related hazards plaguing the towns of Limbe and Tiko.

       To assess and compare the levels of households’ exposure and sensitivity to climate change-related hazards in the coastal towns of Limbe and Tiko.

        To analyse the various adaptation measures put in place by the population to these hazards

         To suggest best possible mitigating measures to help build a powerful resilience scheme to climate change-related hazards in these areas.

1.5 Research hypothesis

The following are the hypotheses guiding this work. Hypothesis one answer specific objective one while hypothesis two covers specific objectives 2, 3 and 4.

• Climate change has led to an increase in the frequency of hazards occurrence in the towns of Limbe and Tiko.
• Limbe is more vulnerable to climate change-related hazards than Tiko.

1.6 Scope and Justification of the study

1.6.1 Scope of the study

The study applies a comparative assessment of household vulnerability to climate change related hazards in the towns of Limbe and Tiko. This research entails the detail study of the hazards caused by climate change (floods, coastal erosion, strong wind and landslides) and the level of population vulnerability to these hazards  in Limbe and Tiko. The period considered in this study spans from 1985 to 2020.

The research will cover the coastal communities along the sea of Tiko (Quarter Rubber, New Layout and Down Beach) and Limbe (Down Beach, New town and Limbe Camp,) for floods, the undulating topographic areas of Tiko (with Mutengene, Likomba and Dipanda as areas of focus) and Limbe (with cases such as Kie, Bonjo and Makuka) will be considered for landslides and coastal erosion will be carried out along the shores running from Mirama Beach, Down Beach and Ngeme Beach, Limbe and Kuwait Beach, Mami Likomba Beach, and Mukuru Beach (Down Beach) in Tiko. While strong wind will be observed in all the study sites.