ABSTRACT

The phenomenon of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) constitutes a major aspect of our society from time immemorial due to the Anglophone crisis. This study aimed at examining the impacts of informal sectors on livelihood of IDPs in Bamenda municipalities. The research design implores mixed qualitative-quantitative correlational design in attaining the study. The sample size of 379 IDPs was established and used in the study. Data collection was from primary and secondary sources. While primary data was collected through personal interviews, questionnaires administration and focus group discussion with some IDPs, secondary data was collected through an appraisal of relevant library, institutional and online sources including textbooks, journals, articles, NGO annual reports on IDPs and dissertations. Collected data was processed through the use of Microsoft Word and Excel, SPSS version 20 and ArcGIS. The analyzed data was presented qualitatively on tables, percentages and graphs. The inferential statistical methods used were the Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and Standard Deviation Analysis to realize the results. Findings showed a strong positive correlation between IDP informal activity of motorbike riders and family income at 0.697.  Also, insecurity and high unemployment rate amongst the IDPs representing 6.9% and 26.1% respectively were the main challenges they faced in the area. Furthermore, result of correlation analysis showed a strong positive relationship between individual coping strategies and the livelihoods of IDPs within the informal sector, with a correlation coefficient of 0.602. The study concludes that the informal sector activities carried out by IDPs greatly increase their livelihood within the Bamenda municipalities. The study recommends that, policy makers and relevant stakeholders redesign the blueprint structure of informal sector activities which increases the involvement of IDPs hence improving their livelihoods in urban areas.

Keywords: Internally Displaced Persons, livelihood, informal sector activities

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This study centers on impacts of informal sector activities on livelihood of internally displaced persons in Bamenda municipality. Chapter One consists of various themes such as background to the study, research problem, research questions, objectives and hypothesis, significance and delimitation of the study are presented. These themes contain key areas invaluable to this study and shows its significance. Chapter one ends with a transitional paragraph termed chapter synthesis and into the review of related literature contained in chapter two.

1.2 Research Context                                                                                               

The quest for alternative means of living has significantly motivated a reasonable number of persons into the informal sector in recent decades. Globally, two billion people take part in the informal employment (International Labour Organization-ILO, 2020). This translates into 60% of the global labor force and 90% of all small and medium scale enterprises (ILO, 2019). One good example is hawking, which is the act of trading in various types of goods and services, which consists of fruits and vegetables, newspapers, cosmetics, jewelry, watches, ladies bags, wallets, second hand clothes to name a few along streets, highways, sidewalks amongst others by hawkers (Asare, 2010). Based on Hart (2010), displaced people often lose assets when they are forced to flee their home and land. They may also be unable to pursue their former work, leading to unemployment, underemployment or informal work, and a significant drop in income. Livelihood loss may lead to reduced access to food and an increase in malnutrition. It may also leave people unable to pay for contraception or push them to engage in transactional sex, with subsequent rises in pregnancy and STI rates. IDPs are often forced to live in substandard camps, collective shelters or informal urban settlements where overcrowding and lack of sanitation can increase the prevalence of communicable diseases. Those with pre-existing disabilities are particularly affected by inadequate shelter and infrastructure, which may cause their health and living conditions to deteriorate (Zhang, 2017).

The Global statistics show that there have been 70.8 million people displaced in 2018 with some 13.6 million recorded in early 2019 in the world (UNHCR, 2020). This displacement could be as a result of conflicts, war, violence or persecution. Detail analysis of the UNHCR of 2020 showed that among this figure, there are 41.3 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), 25.9 million refugees and 3.5 million asylum seekers with most of the affected countries being developing nations (Amnesty International, 2020). Similarly, in 2016, 65 million people around the world were displaced by armed conflicts alone presenting the largest number after the post-world war era (Amnesty International, 2015).

The Developed  world agrees on a wide range of views on “informality” have been expressed from time to time. Some scholars see the informal sector as a constraint to development (Farrell, 2014) and others see it as a potential source of economic growth and poverty alleviation (Jacobson, 2001). Over the last decades a theory and policy shift has taken place, from banning the informal economic activities and businesses to integrating them to formal economy. Everybody can witness in many cities including the capital of the country as petty venders sell shoes, clothes, utensils at very low prices.

In the Developed world, the concept of internal displacement and IDPs is a global phenomenon but nearly 3 quarters of the world’s IDPs live in just 10 countries –Syria, Afghanistan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ukraine, Colombia, Ethiopia, Yemen, Nigeria, Somalia and Sudan many as a result of unresolved conflict that continue to trigger significant displacement in 2022.

Developing countries especially those of Africa, informal business sources as a resource of unemployment, resource scarcity, lack of education, low productivity in agriculture, high population, high economic competition, has forced a million of youths in developing countries like Ethiopia to migrate to urban areas to get employment and participate in informal trade (Aryeetey, 2019).

In sub-Sahara, the informal sector is a source of livelihood for millions of vendors, mechanics, domestic workers, bus drivers and micro-entrepreneurs. Broadly defined as small-scale, self-financed activities operating with a low level of organization in an unregulated environment, the informal sector has exploded with globalization and economic openness (Verick, 2006). Economic activity in countries simply cannot be understood without recognizing that a great share of income, output and employment is generated outside the formal economy. The sector is characterized by small scale operations, labor intensive techniques, low-income families, private and indigenous ownership of enterprises that are largely unprotected by government. Informal sector participants generally live and work in appalling, often dangerous and unhealthy conditions, usually without basic sanitary facilities, in the shanty towns of urban areas (Lawanson, 2017).

Africa, approximately 34% of the population currently live in urban areas; by 2020 it is predicted that nearly half (46.2%) of the population was urban (UN-Habitat, 2011). The population of these developing countries mostly depend on informal activities as the strive to survive in such horrid conditions (IMF, 2017). One consequence is the likely increase in the number of IDPs and a strain on infrastructure to provide basic needs for the vulnerable groups, especially women and children (http://www.internal-displacement.org/law-and-policy, 2019). As at 31 December 2018, the continent hosted some 17.8 million IDPs (Unhcr.org, 2021). Africa has the largest number of IDPs who outnumber refugees in the ratio 5:1 which applies that for every 6 persons, 5 are IDPs and 1 refugee. For instance, at the end of 2013, 12.5 million IDPs in the 21 sub-Saharan countries monitored by Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. A figure more than a third of the global total by Network of migration research on Africa (NOMRA, 2014). Today, these figures are an inaccurate assessment of IDP-refugee ratio as almost every sub-Saharan African country experience this phenomenon (Koppe and Cologne, 2006). Significantly, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan had the largest population of IDPs in Africa (IDMC, 2013). Africa and its development challenges have received significant attention in recent years and Africans are now passively accepting their inability of attaining the `ideal’ Western standards of living (African Development Bank, 2010). Instead, there are vibrant forms of coping and survival activities which need to be more fully understood and interpreted (Nel, 2007). Development strategies are continuously being fine-tuned by the multiple actors involved in the development process. It is worth noting that, the magnitude of this problem in other countries and regions has been affected from a mass growth of IDPs (UNHCR, 2019).

In 2014, Nigeria topped African countries with 3.3 million IDPs, about a third of IDPs in Africa and 10 percent of global IDPs, aggravated largely by the Boko Haram Insurgency (www.unocha.org). The sect continues to kill, maim and displace populations not only in Nigeria but also in neighboring Cameroon and Chad (the challenge of insurgency persists in Mali, Nigeria, Kenya, Somalia and neighboring countries in Western Africa and Eastern Africa) (Thurston, 2016). Over 3.2 million people are displaced including over 2.9 million IDPs in North-eastern Nigeria due to the Boko Haram Insurgency while over 684000 IDPs in Cameroon, Chad and Niger and 304,000 refugees on the four countries (UNHCR, 2020).One consequence is the likely increase in the number of internally displaced persons and a strain on infrastructure to provide for the needs of vulnerable groups, especially women and children (Achua, 2014). Although forced displacement is a global phenomenon, it is more pronounced in Africa. Africa hosts over one-third of the global forced displacement population. As at 31 December 2018, the continent hosted some 17.8 million internally displaced persons (UNCHR, 2020).

The informal sector is predominantly prevailing in the developing countries evidence from the various related economic activities prevailing such as street vending (Anetor, 2021). Street hawking is very common in developing world and the types of goods sold vary with seasons and socio economic implications on the hawkers and the communities (Dharejo, 2022). In Sub-Saharan Africa, are IDPs in informal sector activities are classified into four categories (permanent, semi-permanent, semi-mobile and mobile) (Israt and Adam, 2015). These activities vary seasonally. There is high demand for school needs during back to school periods with increase in hawkers as majority of the population and IDPs alike engage in the sale of school needs such as books, pens, school bags and uniforms as they attract high sales and profits (Abisoye, 2013). In Christian communities, there is usually a high demand for clothes and food items during the end of year festivities like Christmas and New year (Anetor, 2021). This activity usually attracts hawkers and also IDPs into such line of businesses such as food, clothing and this leads to increase in the accumulation of stock and employment of more hawkers in the sales of food and dresses.

Approximately 680.000 Cameroonians are now displaced within the country due to the volatile and insecure situation in the North West and South West Regions (OCHA, 2020) while 52000 additional people have sought refuge in neighbouring Nigeria and most of the displacement within North West and South West Regions are mainly in the same divisions (UN Office for the coordination of Humanitarian Affairs UNOCHA, 2019). Cameroon is a highly urbanized country by sub-Saharan standards (World Bank, 2002), these policies had negative effects on the huge urban population. It is worth noting that the country has seen its urbanization level increase from 35.7 per cent in 1985 to 56.1 per cent in 2010 (UN-HABITAT, 2011).

It is true that displaced persons personally try to regain or regenerate a “livelihood”, but equally need to assist in such efforts by the governments of host countries, some philanthropic activities and humanitarian organizations (Jacobsen, 2014). Also, informal sector contributes 20 to 30% in the creation of the country’s GDP. Many programs supporting the informal sector have been initiated and the most important of them are the Integrated Program of Support for Informal Sector Actors (PIAASI) and the Program of Support to Rural Jobs Development (PADER) which essentially boil down to training and financing of self-employment (IMF Report, 2021).Santa reported the largest percentage of people displaced in the previous three months, whereas Bamenda host a greater percentage of IDPs displaced over six months (IDCM, 2019b). The informal sector officially occupies 90% of the active population in the country, as productive as that of countries with much higher economic level in Africa (Joyce, 2021).

About 56 percent of IDPs and host men and women practiced agriculture before the crisis in Cameroon (World Food Program WFP, 2020). Trading and crafts were also prominent livelihoods in Cameroon (HR, 2018). The majority of IDPs do not currently have access to land for agriculture. As a result, 93 percent of IDP households report having less access to financial resources at the time. A majority of IDP households with financial resources are insufficient to satisfy families’ basic needs at time of survey (Catholic Relief Service [CRS], 2018).

In Cameroon, employment in the informal sector accounts for 82.4% and 70.9% for women and men respectively (ILO, 2021). Her informal sector is characterized by dominance of street traders that undertake different business activities such as food vending, cloths, vegetables, fruits, home utensils, depending on the season and accounts for about 90.4% of the total labor force in the country (ILO, 2021). The “informal economy is one way of pointing to how people devised their own means of survival and sometimes of prosperity in the urban markets that spring up spontaneously to meet their needs” (Hart, 2010a). Marjorie (2010) analyzed local development as a dynamic process along three main lines: inputs, outputs and outcomes. Inputs include the area, sense of belonging, community, bottom-up, partnership, endogenous potential and proximity. Outputs includes local beneficiaries, self-help, increased incomes and revenues, access to services, quality, efficiency, relocation, diversification, new methods, and increased local value. These levels of urbanization are important to the study as a clear distinction is visible after the 2016 period with the development of the Anglophone crisis. Armed conflicts have been known in most cases to last for decades while other very rare cases not long lasting and environmental factors do influence the duration of every conflict (Moeller, 2012) which saw many Cameroonians unemployed (Christ, 2020).

The North West Region of Cameroon is indifferent as the informal sector employs more than 80% of the labor force (Ojong, 2011). Veritable economic activities highly carried out in the city of Bamenda are characterized with the sale of agricultural products, clothing, electronic products, cosmetics, cultural products and foreign products (Nyambod, 2010). In the North West Region, informal activities are undertaken in local markets and motor parks although some street vendors sell along streets and retail corners. The total population of Bamenda stands at 573,000 inhabitants (UN, 2022). The greater majority focuses near markets such as Nkwen and Food markets were population concentration is highest and business activities at its peak. There is a direct relationship between informal sector and IDPs in terms of products sold for example the sale of mushrooms in villages that link Ndop sub division to the Bamenda municipality due to high availability. Also, informal activities such as vegetable production is sold during rainy season along the Tubah-Bamenda stretches of road due to high availability (Sop et al., 2015).

In Bamenda, informal activity is one of the livelihood strategies characterized by the sale of household items. Informal activities such as street hawking is characterized by variations in actors and the types of products with respect to season has led to urban disorder resulting from space conflicts between hawkers and other urban users that is small retail shops, Mobile money stalls and other small scale businesses resulting in traffic congestion and accidents (Chin, 2016). This study therefore presents a comprehensive approach in examining the statement of the research problem.

1.3 Statement of the Research Problem                                                                 

A better understanding of society is one that acknowledges and takes into consideration everyone, including IDPS. Majority of the IDPs are teenagers who get involved in the informal sector. Their engagement in informal activities exposes them to ill practices such as rape, sex trafficking, theft, negative psychological and health problems, amongst others. This goes against Fundamental Human Rights (FHR) and distorts the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). It is visible during the long term holidays (June to August) where children are forced into commercial activities as many IDPs move selling commodities within Bamenda. IDPs sell mixed agricultural and commercial products for long periods such as those from under privileged homes. This period is characterized by high crime waves and the young adolescents age group are vulnerable, creating negative bearings on development. The situation worsens with the involvement of IDPs in the informal sector. This brings a negative implication on profit margins and on economic growth.

In addition, increase dependency ratio within the study area provides a huge strain on available household resources especially, food sources. This is due to the influx of IDPs to already less crowded and crowded homes. This is a common phenomenon that plagues the Bamenda municipality in particular. The increase births in Bamenda due to the temporal closure of schools from 2016 till date, increases the number of school dropouts. Increase dropouts elevates births; more mouths to feed, thereby causing increase dependency ratio. This compounds the issue IDPs face within the informal sector in Bamenda.

The problem of livelihood of IDPs is compounded by urban zoning and commuting IDPs. Urban spacing is a crucial aspect to development which creates a foundation for economic growth. However, fissures found within this urban zoning has created disputes between urban city dwellers and desperate IDPs. Space conflicts between these IDPs striving to survive and Urban city dwellers, planners and business enterprises has given rise to unprecedented problems. The issue of public spaces has become a bone of contention within the area. The development of traffic congestion amongst others, is attributed to spacing disputes from crowdedness. As the situation increases, IDPs in informal activities suffer from accessibility while involving in informal sector trying to make a living. Also, people engaged in informal activities such as hawking, flee from urban planning authorities distorting stakeholder’s involvement due to a continues violation of rules and planning actions. The city authorities observe unplanned space occupation as an informal activity which distorts the area while the population and IDPs see it as an opportunity sustaining livelihood. This is from the failure of the formal sector to provide jobs for the population. Survival entails makeshift containers and other tactics developed by the desperate IDPs to resist or escape eviction. This problem is compounded especially as a majority of the people in the informal sector are tax evaders causing contention between informal sector and public authorities.

The biggest shortcoming of IDPs in the informal sector is the high level of unemployment. Many people are actively involved in the informal sector as a main source for sustenance as such, informal economic activities are carried out by a majority of urban dwellers for livelihood sustenance. With the unprecedented spike of unemployment, this is a main source of employment (informal activities) to the educated persons who are unprivileged to obtain blue collar jobs and to uneducated city dwellers who rely on peasant jobs (informal activities) to sustain their livelihood. This also renders the sector very competitive. The high unemployment rates prevailing reduces standards of living as the inability to afford for basic necessities.

The problem of insecurity in Bamenda affects IDPs who survive in the informal sector. Hardships causes IDPs to be insecure or uncertain about their future goals or personal careers. This is visible as a majority with uneven opportunities are forced to engage into informal activities. The prevalence of insecurity gives rise to hostility which only opens up the door of inefficiency. Inefficiency here is the inability to produce results over a given time period amplifying the already poor conditions. It is against this backdrop that this research seeks to provide answers to the following research questions. Faced with these problems, this study poses the following research questions.

1.4 Research questions         

1.4.1 Main question  

How does informal sector activities impact the livelihood of IDPs in the Bamenda municipalities?

1.4.2 Specific questions        

1. What are the dynamics, and contributions of informal sector activities to the livelihood of internally displaced persons in the Bamenda municipalities?
2. What are the informal sector activity challenges faced by IDPs in the Bamenda municipalities?
3. What are the policy actions and sustainable management strategies implemented by stakeholders in supporting IDPs within the informal sector in Bamenda municipalities?

1.5 Research objectives

1.5.1 Main objective 

To assess the impacts of informal sector activities on the livelihoods of IDPs in the Bamenda municipalities.

1.5.2 Specific objectives       

1. To identify the dynamics, and contributions of informal sector activities to the livelihood of internally displaced persons in the Bamenda municipalities.
2. To investigate the informal sector activity challenges faced by IDPs in the Bamenda municipalities.
3. To assess policy actions and sustainable management strategies implemented by stakeholders to IDPs within the informal sector in the Bamenda municipalities.

1.6 Research Hypothesis                                                                                                1.6.1 Main Hypothesis            

The main hypothesis of this study is stated as: Informal sector activities significantly improves the lives of IDPs in the Bamenda municipality. The specific hypotheses are:

1.6.2 Specific Hypotheses

1. There is a significant positive correlation between commercial motor bike activities and family income of IDPs in Bamenda.
2. Insecurity and high unemployment significantly affects the livelihood of IDPs within the Bamenda municipalities.
3. There is a strong positive relationship between individual coping strategies and the livelihoods of IDPs within the informal sector in the Bamenda municipalities.