CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

 1.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the research context of the implications of land use/land cover dynamics on ecosystem services in Tubah Sub-Division. That is followed by research problem and then the research questions, research objectives and hypotheses are drawn thereof. The justification and the significance of the study as well as the presentation of the study area also feature in this chapter.

1.1 Research Context

Land use/land cover (LULC) changes are aspects of global environmental change and affect ecosystem processes and services. An increasing demand for agricultural, industrial or urban areas compromises the ability of natural forests, water bodies and grasslands that support humankind (Goldman-Benner et al., 2012). In recent decades, a large amount of change in LULC has been observed, caused by different socio-economic and biophysical drivers, such as population growth, agricultural expansion and intensification, accessibility to infrastructure and markets, water availability and climate. Furthermore, the role invasive alien plant species (IAPS), in compromising biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES) (Vilà and Hulme, 2017), or promote ecosystem disservices (EDS), with the outcome that benefits people derive from nature are altered cannot be over emphasized (Pejchar and Mooney, 2009). However, little is known about the effect of invasive plant species on LULC dynamics and its consequences of ecosystems services at larger spatial scales (Le Maitre et al., 2014).

Species-rich ecosystems are able to simultaneously provide multiple ecosystem services (Lefcheck et al., 2015). If land use/land cover changes negatively affect biodiversity and the provisioning of these ES, or promote EDS, they also reduce the overall value of the land. According to TEEB (2010), “recognizing value in ecosystems, landscapes, species and other aspects of biodiversity is a feature of all human societies and communities, and sometimes sufficient to ensure conservation and sustainable use”.

Over the last 20 years, many ecosystem service values studies have been carried out at global, national or sub national levels, some of which have integrated spatially explicit approaches. At the global level, the value of ecosystem services in 2011 was estimated at US$ 125 trillion per year (assuming changes in LULC) to US$ 145 trillion per year (without assuming LULC changes), (Constanza et al.; 2014). The decrease in ecosystem services between 1997 and 2011 because of land use changes was at US$ 4.3 to 20.2 trillion per year (Costanza et al., 2014). Losses in ecosystem services at national and sub national levels were also reported to be high (Crespin and Simonetti, 2016). Although these biomes are not exactly similar in their characteristics and functions with the LULC types used in different studies, average values per unit area derived from valuation studies for a particular biome can be used as proxies for estimating the ecosystem services vales of the corresponding land use or land cover types (Tolessa et al., 2017).

In developed countries like Germany, Braat and Groot (2012) suggested that decisions regarding the future use of an ecosystem should consider the full costs and benefits for the welfare of the current and future generations. Ecosystem services are the products of complex interconnected social–ecological systems, indicating that evaluating ecosystem supply and values requires a deep understanding of the social–ecological systems and the dynamics of the relationship between human activities and the ecosystems they rely on (Vaz et al., 2017). Hence, understanding the implications of LULC dynamics on ecosystem services will contribute towards considering ecosystem services for policy goals for safeguarding societal welfare (Niquisse et al., 2017).

In sub-Saharan Africa, some studies have been conducted on mapping and valuation of ecosystem services in the context of land use/land cover changes (Arowolo et al., 2018). Almost all studies indicate that this region is under severe pressure of degradation, with significant consequences for rural livelihoods. For example, Sutton et al. (2016) estimated for Ethiopia a loss of 17.7% in Ecosystem Services Values (ESVs) due to land degradation, which is also reflected in studies conducted in different parts of Ethiopia (Gashaw et al., 2018). Drivers of land degradation in sub-Saharan Africa include the expansion of crop production, unsustainable grazing and forestry practices, and climate change (Scholes et al., 2018). The impact of invasive species on losses in ESVs may be particularly relevant in the region, as low-income countries appear to be particularly vulnerable to biological invasions.

In Cameroon, since colonial epoch, in response to forest degradation, several forest reserves and protected areas have been created in the interest of biodiversity conservation (Temgoua, 2011). With a view to land-use planning, a zoning plan for the southern part of Cameroon has been drawn up. This zoning plan divides the forest area and makes a fundamental distinction between permanent and non-permanent forests. Forest reserves are part of the permanent forest estate that is designated to remain forested over the long term. Thus, within this permanent forest estate, agriculture is prohibited and the use of forest resources is subject to restrictions. Today, however, in Cameroon, these forest reserves are undergoing significant degradation due to strong pressure on natural resources by human activities (agriculture, timber extraction, grazing, road and housing construction), causing land use change (Fokeng et al., 2020).

Forests once largely covered the Bamenda highlands region of Cameroon. However, the forest was progressively cleared for farmlands and grazing until today only patches remains. Although small, these patches are recognized as important for the people living around them, as they supply water, fuel wood, medicines, honey and other products and have cultural and spiritual importance have subjected the forest remnants to further human pressure, which is reflected in LULC dynamics and likely alterations in ecosystem service provision.

Since the 19th Century, Tubah Sub-division has transcended from being a traditional monoculture society to a complex heterogeneous area, offering many services to its inhabitants as well as its hinterlands. It attracts many people due to its economic, social and administrative functions. In Tubah, the continuous loss of rangeland, forest and farmland is not only becoming a threat to resource sustainability, but it is having a great impact on the landscape pattern, atmospheric environment, biodiversity and human vulnerability. The demand for social amenities such as roads, waste disposal sites, electricity, water as well as landed property, has noticed an exponential increase since the 1980s. As a result, there is a gradual but steady conversion of the natural landscape to meet human needs, which has implications on resource availability and human benefits embedded in ecosystems. This study is therefore aimed at assessing the implication of land use/land cover dynamics on ecosystem services in Tubah Sub-Division.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

Over the years, there have been physical changes in the land use, land cover changes of Tubah upland forest, which occurs by the dwelling of the Tubah forest. This has been the source of survival for the population and source of income. The physical environment of Tubah Sub-division and its environs that knew little or no stress prior to in the 1980s has witnessed a progressive change of the land cover and land use patterns. The rapid increase in population (from 29,192 in 1976 to65,250, in 2015 (National Office Website 2015), stand as the main changes in land cover are inextricably linked to modifications into the potential of ecosystems socio-ecological benefits provision. The magnitude of modification varies with ecosystem type and geographical location. The impacts of LULC change dynamics on ecosystem service provision of the Tubah Upland forest have not been elucidated. This research is designed to fill that void driving force behind land use/cover dynamics. The main economic activity in this area is agriculture; farmers and grazers have cleared off large portions of the forest with the use of fire for agricultural and grazing purposes. For instance, there has been encroachment into forest areas and a tremendous degradation of rangelands for subsistence farming leading to farmer-grazer conflicts, which is common in Bambili and on the Sabga highlands. There is high demand for land to meet the dire residential needs, commercial needs, social amenities and socio-economic infrastructures. This has exerted pressure on the lean resources and created a variety of complex land cover and land use dilemmas and if not controlled, can degenerate into environmental crisis. These anthropogenic activities enhance development but there is a high cost on the sustainability of the resources. There also exists parodic floods and landslides in Bambui, which have caused land cover changes. It is envisaged that the data will chart a way forward for sustainable land use planning and development.

1.3 Research Questions

From the research problem, the following research questions are derived.

1.3.1 Main Research Question

• What are the implication of land use/land cover dynamics on ecosystem services in Tubah Sub-Division?

1.3.2 Specific Research Questions

• How the various forms of land use spatially distributed in Tubah Subdivision?
• What are the drivers of land use land cover dynamics in Tubah Subdivision?
• What is the impact of land use land cover change on the provision of ecosystem services by the Tubah Upland forest?

1.4 Research Objectives

The following research objectives were derived from the research problems questions

1.4.1 Main Research Objective

• To examine the implication of land use/land cover dynamics on ecosystem services in Tubah Sub-Division.

1.4.2 Specific Research Objectives

1) To find out the spatial distribution of various land uses in Tubah

2) To determine drivers of land use land cover dynamics in Tubah Sub-Division.

3) To examine the impact of land use/land cover change on the provision of ecosystem services by the Tubah upland forests