CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this chapter is to give an understanding of the main variables of the study at the global to region, national and local scales. It develops the background of the study and the geographical planning issue. The chapter brings to focus the understanding of the research problem and the originality of the study. This chapter is divided into different sections: the background to the study, location of the study area, statement of the research problem, research questions, objectives and hypotheses, the review of related literature and the significance of the study. This brings the study novelty to focus and the research gaps available to be filled by this study.

1.1-Background to the study

Globally, land reclamation has played a significant role in the housing development process in coastal maritime areas of the world. Land reclamation does not typically seek to ‘reclaim’ lost ground at all but instead to extend solid ground out into new frontiers. Marine spaces often provide the initial rationale for founding human habitations and livelihoods in coastal and wetland zones (Grydehoj et al., 2022). Land reclamation, the process of improving lands to make them suitable for a more intensive use. Reclamation efforts may be concerned with the improvement of rainfall-deficient areas by irrigation, the removal of detrimental constituents from salty or alkali lands, the diking and draining of tidal marshes, the smoothing and vegetation of strip-mine spoil areas, and similar activities (Steyn, 2015).

Land reclamation is a specific technologic way to maintain favorable conditions of lands, natural resource that is critical for agriculture. Land reclamation implies radical change of lands in the result of set of measures. Among various land reclamation forms, irrigation and drainage are the most common. Land clearance operations (brushwood clearing, leveling of mole hills, etc.). chemical reclamation (liming and gypsuming of soils), silver cultural reclamation, stabilization of loose sands, water and wind erosion control, etc. Many irrigation projects have failed because of salt accumulations in the irrigated soils or the silting in of reservoirs and irrigation canals. It is essential, therefore, that provision for drainage of the irrigated lands be considered in the planning of all irrigation reclamation projects and that water relatively free from dissolved salts be used. Land reclamation contributes to the maintenance and improvement of soil fertility, growth of crop capacity, rise of farming sustainability, mitigation of the effect of climate and weather fluctuations on production capacity. The scale of land reclamation expands; however, at the current stage the main focus is on enhancing its efficiency (Murray, 2015).

In the developed world, coastal and tidal wetlands found along the Atlantic, pacific, Alaskan and gulf coasts are being reclaimed for infrastructural development (Ramsar Convention, 2010). In the case in Japan bother by the Ocean, land is reclaimed in the coastal areas to solve their problem of land shortage for housing development (Ramsar Convention, 2010). This is also the case of Holland where since the 1960s land reclamation has evidently created the seven Polders of Holland. The land is limited while the number of population increased continuously, as well as the demand for development and infrastructures of housing, commercials, and business (Ramly, 2018). In the United States, the most extensive reclamation activities are those concerned with irrigation, particularly in the western United States. Reclamation in this region has a central purpose for the construction and maintenance of dams, canals, and pumping systems to bring irrigation water to arid, semiarid, or sub humid lands in the 17 western states. Among the more than 600 dams constructed by the Bureau of Reclamation are Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River and Hoover Dam on the Colorado River (Fuller, 2014).

In the developing world, human settlements appear to be the most dynamic human elements in many wetlands and coastal areas. Settlements are the most visible signs that human culture has imposed on the marsh lands. This dynamism is propelled by a rapid urbanization resulting from the ever increasing population (Depecker and Menezo, 2011). Considering urbanization as a major driver of housing demand and land reclamation, since 1950, the process of urbanization has been faster with more than half of the population in the developing countries now living in urban areas with about 54.5% in 2016 as compared to 37.9% in 1976 (Ourghi et al., 2014). Demographic explosion in Africa and Asia has reduced the land for urban development and consequently the invasion of marshlands for infrastructural development.

In Latin American and the Caribbean areas are considered as the most urbanized. Argentina, Uruguay and Venezuela are at an advanced stage of urbanization (Winchester, 2005). Human settlement dynamics has accompanied urbanization through expansion into new areas and the densification of the core areas. Unfortunately, the region’s human settlement dynamics is impacted by an unplanned urbanization. Integrated urban areas upgrading programmes with new policies for social housing have been put in place in Chile, Colombia and Costa Rica to improve on informal settlements. There is need for sustainable cities with sustainable human settlements (Omofonmwan, et al., 2007).

In Cameroon, cites like Douala, Limbe and Kribi have largely developed from the massive invasion of wetlands for human infrastructural development. Many wetlands across the country in the different towns and cities are being exploited for housing construction and development (Davidson et al., 2018).  The reclamation of wetlands along the Yaoundé-Bafoussam-Bamenda axis have not on being for housing construction but for road development. Land reclamation here has also been for food production. This is seen in the seasonal development of farmlands and buildings in the different wetlands in the urban areas. In the North West Region, the Bamenda city area has not any permanent land policy as there is the random reclamation of wetlands on seasonal basis. The rapid population growth, increasing urbanization rates in Mankon and Nkwen areas have heightened the rate of land reclamation as is the case in Mulang Ngomngham, Ntarikon, mile 7 Mankon, Commercial Avenue neighborhoods. Ion Bamenda III Sub-Division, housing expansion have seen the rapid reclamation of the swamps and wetlands in the area (Fombe and Acha, 2020).

Bamenda III is located between latitude 5⁰ 57’34.92” N and longitude 10⁰ 08’45”E, it has a total surface of 22.9km² and has a tropical savannah climate with two seasons. The natural sites of Bamenda III consist of the Ndzah plateau to the south east, the Nkwen escarpments which divide Ndzah from Nkwen. Nkwen also has undulating and well drained lowland terrain. There are also several waterfalls and streams dissecting the escarpments and low lying lands (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Location map of Bamenda III Sub-Division in the North West Region of Cameroon

Bamenda III Sub-Division is the gateway to and from the Divisions of Boyo, Ngohkentunja, Bui and Donga Mantung. It is an important transit for passengers and goods to and from the North West Region. Bamenda III is linked to the North West Region by the Bamenda-Kumbo highway, Bamenda-Fundong highway, Bamenda-Wum and Bamenda Mamfe highways. To the West is the Bamenda-Bafoussam highway. It is bounded by Tubah Council to the west, Bamenda I Sub-Divisional Council to the north, Bamenda II Sub-Divisional Council to the east and Bafut Council to the south.

1.3.1-Physical background of the study area.

1.3.1.1-Climatic influences on land reclamation and construction

The Bamenda III Sub-Division area show great ecological variations and consequently climate variations. This greatly influenced settlement patterns and agricultural activities. The type of climate found here is the Guinea-Savanna climate. The climate is marked by two distinct seasons; the dry and rainy seasons. The rainy season usually begins around March to mid-October. The rainfall ranges between 2000 to 3000mm per annum (Bamenda III CDP, 2012). The dry season is usually from October to February. The nights are very cold while the days are very hot. The annual average temperature hardly exceeds 19⁰C. Strong winds and heavy clouds cover characterize the area. Heavy clouds usually descend from the hills and during such occurrence visibility is very poor. The heavy rainfall creates saturated overland flow which encourages water logging in the rain season. It is for this reason the land is reclaimed through back filling, irrigation and pumping of water out of the marshy areas for construction of infrastructures. Seasonally, reclamation takes place in the dry season and construction in the rainy season.

1.3.1.1-Influence of relief on reclamation for construction activities

The area shows a wide variety in its relief, with altitudes ranging from 1 300m and 2600m above sea level. Characteristic features include many hills with gentle to steep slopes. The gentle slopes favour settlement and constitute the urban sphere of the area as most witnessed in the local neighborhoods of Nkwen where the gentle relief permits the construction of vertical and horizontal houses leading to it growth and development. The numerous streams like Nki Mefuh, Nki Mengwee, Nki Nahmo, and Nki Lepakan acts as a source of portable water in the study area.  Furthermore, the gentle slopes and plains of the Nkwen area have greatly influenced human settlement, commercial and industrial activities. Considering the undulated nature of the landscape, there has been limited land for housing expansion and consequently the reclamation of wetlands to gain space for settlement development.

1.3.1.3-Soils encouraging waterlogging and construction

Penevoluted ferralitic soils are found mostly in the lowly-lying area of Nkwen, while some of the highland areas of Nkwen and particularly Ndzah have modified orthic soils. Given the hilly nature of some of these areas, most of the soils on the mountain slopes have been washed down to the valleys forming a rich zone of fertile soils. This has greatly influenced the type of material used for construction; sun-dried bricks, and crops like Irish potatoes; cabbage, carrots and species are grown on the rich valley soils. However, eucalyptus trees are planted in some of the areas, which have heavily leached soils. In the valleys and swamps are mudflats and soft soils that needs back filling reclamation before construction of houses.

1.3.1.4-Drainage that promoted waterlogging and swamps

The Bamenda III municipality is drained by several rivers, streams and springs. Some of the main rivers include; Nki Ndimunworo, Nki Lepakan, Nki Wasung, Nki Mefuh, Nki Ntse, Finkibong, Nki Tohnhtah, Nki Maishifie, Nki Mengwee, Nkie Ngongang, Nki Ngewa Ngewa, Nki Nahmo, Nki Nebung, Nki Mbekewa, Nki Santary, Nki Njengang, Nki Njembere, and Nki Chichi. They have various uses, like laundry, cooking, drinking, car washing, construction of houses, and irrigation (market gardening). Interestingly, some of them are equally used as Boundaries between some of the chiefdoms and quarters. There are also beautiful waterfalls found on the mountain slopes especially during rainy season. A very significant case here is the waterfall Ndzah village where from the name of ‘Ndzah’ is derived as a result of the fact that the fall divides as it flows downhill. The drainage conditions encourage water logging in soils in the rainy season. This is the basis of land reclamation the dry season for housing construction.

1.3.1.5- Vegetation promoting wetlands.                                                                            

Situated in a Sudan-Savannah Zone, the area is endowed with different types of vegetation. A sub montane forest, which has been greatly degraded; a montane forest and a domesticated sub-montane landscape. The landscape is mainly grass with fringes of forest along the gentle slopes and narrow valleys. Fulani’s occupy the grassland areas of the mountain slopes for grazing. Extensive grass cover can be found around the rural areas of Nkwen, and especially on the Ndzah hills in carpet-like shape, which gives a touch of beauty to the landscape. However, the vegetation types have greatly degenerated over the years. This has been as a result of constant bush fires set by hunters and grazers and sometimes accidentally by farmers who practice slash and burn, not leaving out the effects of urban sprawl. Some of the natural forest found in the Santa-Ngemba forest zone of Ndzah is being exploited for timber and clearing to extend farming land. The area is also very rich in planted eucalyptus vegetation. The vegetation of the council area greatly favours the grazing of animals like cattle, sheep and horses. This activity is mainly practiced by the Mbororo who constitute one of the vulnerable groups within the municipality. Their principal area of grazing is on the Ndzah slopes, where there is a cattle market, and in some parts of Nkwen. However, due to the fact that land within the whole municipality has not been well demarcated, especially for grazing and farming, farmer-grazer conflicts often arise. Despite this constraint, the municipality is well noted for the supply of cattle products, especially meat, to the entire Bamenda community. Other animals domesticated include goats, cane rats, fowls, and ducks. These are mainly for sale, and for local consumption. Furthermore, with the part of the Santa-Ngemba forest located within the council area, there are some species of animals like monkeys, deer, rabbits, and squirrels within this forest. The planting of eucalyptus plantations and trees is a strategy by the population reclaim wetlands. This is due to the fact the plant is water loving and intends sucks most of the water in the wetlands making it dry for housing construction 3 year 1999 and confirmed by the National Demographic and Housing Census of 2005, there has been a population increase of about 6% per annum. The constant population growth is caused by a very positive natural balance and a very positive net migration. The most dominant population is the youth and serves as a pool of potential human resources for the council area. There are more women than men in Nkwen and Ndzah villages that make up the municipality. There is an increase in birth rate and a decrease in death rate by about 3%. The total population of Bamenda III area is approximately 150.000 inhabitants (Mbanga, 2018). This population is projected in this study from the 2012 statistics (102500 inhabitants) to give a total population of 312000 inhabitants in 2020. The increase in population has led to the extension of settlements to new neighborhoods. Most of these new layouts across the Sub-Division are reclaimed areas. Recently most them are concentrated in and at the peripheries of the major urban area.

1.3.2.2. Economic activities that promote land reclamation and housing development

There are a variety of economic activities carried out within the Bamenda III Sub-Division. These include: animal husbandry, grinding mills, arts shops, filling stations, documentation services, cyber cafés, call box/credit transfer, hair dressing/barbing saloons, inn/lodging services, market gardening, motor cycle repairs, motor park, off-licenses, palm wine sales, restaurants, hotels, spare parts store (motor cycle), super markets, tailoring, transportation services (motor cycle riding, bus agencies amongst others), video clubs, and general provision. However, about 70% of the total population lives on agriculture, while about 10% are civil servants, and about 20% are traders (CDP, 2012). There are activities like constructions, land speculation, agriculture and transportation that encourage land reclamation in different seasons

1.4-Statement of the research problem

Bamenda III Sub-Division has been experiencing a high population growth and the increasing demand for construction land in the recent past years.  The demand for land in most and pressure in most cases is for domestic use, agricultural and construction of houses. The total population of Bamenda III area is approximately 150.000 inhabitants (Mbanga, 2018). This population is projected in this study from the 2012 statistics (102500 inhabitants) to give a total population of 312000 inhabitants in 2020. The areas in the neighborhoods of Manda, Ntaghem, Bayelle and Futru have been witnessing rapid urbanization characterized by the multiplication of major land uses such as agricultural, settlement and administrative land use.

As the town continues to witness rapid multiplication of land uses due to her primary status, wetland encroachment and degradation has been aggravated. The rapid pace of population growth in Bamenda III sub-division ultimately affects its wetland ecosystem. Evidence show massive reclamation of wetlands through backfilling, pumping of water and channels created to gain dry land. As it’s the case in Ntenefor, Ntaghem and Manda urban development encroaching into the reclaimed areas to secure space for multiple houses being constructed is very severe.

The management of wetlands in the area is very poor. Areas marked and banned from land reclamation are constantly being reclaimed on a daily basis by an ignorant and land hungry population. This is done with the corrupt municipal authorizes. The disappearance of ecosystems is observed. The areas that were occupied by natural ecosystems in these wetlands are gradually being taken over by man-made agricultural ecosystems and human settlements. The surface areas for these wetlands have reduced significantly and only patches of wetlands can be spotted in the study area. The rapid disappearance of these wetland ecosystems is therefore a call for concern.

There have multiple stakeholders like the population, NGOs, road construction companies, Council among others have transformed wetlands through reclamation into construction sites. This mostly takes place during dry seasons when water is limited and so the population turns to reclaim the land through different methods like back filling and water pumping. Efforts have been made to restrict reclamation with the extent of success questionable. The government has placed bans such as no land reclamation, punishments and sanctions paced on those violators. Many land reclamations are being stopped because of sanctions of about 25000frs which are to be paid by people who violate the government thereby, restricting their actions. There is certain level of success in that many land reclamations in Bamenda III have stopped until a clear authorization is been given by the government for the land to be owned. However, the degree of land scarcity in the phase of increasing population have seen the population through individual activities increasing the yearly constructions on reclaimed lands. It is against this background the study brings to focus the relation between land reclamation and housing development in Bamenda III Sub-Division.