CHAPTER I

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

Within this chapter, a thorough examination of landfills and geospatial technology unfolds, presenting a panoramic view from the global landscape down to intricate local level. The research problems are meticulously identified, paving the way for insightful exploration. Research questions and objectives are strategically crafted, aligning with the hypothesis that guides the study’s trajectory. The chapter unveils the precise location of the study area, establishing a geospatial context crucial for understanding the intricate dynamics at play. Spatial delimitation delineates the boundaries, while thematic delimitation defines the scope, ensuring a focused investigation. Temporal delimitation, meanwhile, constructs a temporal framework, acknowledging the evolution of the study over time. A detailed exposition on the physical background of the study area is presented, shedding light on its geographical, geological, and ecological facets. The significance and justification of the study are underscored, emphasizing its relevance in addressing pressing environmental challenges and contributing to the advancement of geospatial technology applications in waste management. The chapter also serves as a roadmap for readers, offering a transparent organization that guides them through the multifaceted exploration. It culminates in a synthesis that encapsulates the key insights, setting the stage for subsequent chapters. This holistic approach ensures that the reader gains a profound understanding of the research landscape, laying the groundwork for a comprehensive and impactful study.

1.1 Research context

In the wake of a global unprecedented growth in population, the problem of solid waste management has assumed a gigantic proportion in most parts of the world. Management of solid waste is now a major global concern that is increasing by the day (Rahman et al. 2008). Waste generation is among the most significant sources that threaten the global environmental health. According to the world bank, 2020 about 2.01 billion tons of waste is generated annually which boils down to 5.5 million tons a day. Countries in East Asia Pacific, Europe and Central Asia regions account for 43 percent of the world’s waste by magnitude; The Middle East, North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa regions produce the least amount of waste, together accounting for 15 percent of the world’s waste. East Asia and Pacific generates the most in absolute terms, an estimated 468 million tons in 2016, and the Middle East.

More so, it has been estimated that approximately 80 percent of this waste generated throughout the world is landfilled (Filipenco, 2023). Until the advent of environmental awareness in the late 60s, open dumping of solid waste was the most popular means of disposal across the developed world. This advent saw the closure of many dumps and an upgrading to sanitary landfills. Landfilling became a more widely utilized method of disposal (Mofazzal, 2022). Globally The effects of improper landfills which included air pollution, ground and surface water contamination became a call for concern as lichates from improperly located landfills infiltrated in to the soil and water bodies rendering them useless for any purpose. This then increased the relevance of a careful selection of landfill which could adhere to environmental sustainability.

In recent years, geospatial technology emerged as a useful tool in identifying suitable landfill sites. In the early days, geospatial technology was mainly used by cartographers, who needed a way to overlay multiple spatial datasets to produce one single map. This way, they could forecast the implications of urban planning or monitor change over time of a phenomenon in an area (Rees,2018). As time went on, geospatial technology evolved to markedly impact the field of spatial analysis and could be used too for the siting of landfills. This transformed the whole process from a rudimentary to a sophisticated and comprehensive approach in selecting suitable land fill (Chande 2024). The advent of RS and GIS in the field of geospatial technology has significantly enriched the data availability and the possibility to analyze and visualize complex geographic data related to location (Quamar,2023)

In the develop world like north America, landfills still remain the primary method of waste management, receiving over 62% of waste discarded by homes. The 1976 resource conservation and recovery act (RACA) in the united states set regulatory standards for landfills design and operation influencing landfill. The location, design and operation of landfills must comply with federal regulations. They must be designed to protect the environment from contaminants. the federal regulations prohibit construction of landfills in environmentally sensitive areas and their location s must be placed using environmental monitoring systems like remote sensing (EPA,2023). In Europe, the operation of landfills is strictly regulated to prevent environmental and health risk. The land fill directive acts of 1999 set out requirements for landfill location, control of leachates, soil and water protection. The waste management frame work directive mandate members states to ensure waste disposal without negative impacts on human health or the environment. (European environment agency, 2024)

In Asia and Latin America, waste management is a critical issue with significant environmental and health implications. In India for example where urbanization is outpacing waste management infrastructure, municipal solid waste generation is increasing exponentially, straining existing landfill capacities and leading to illegal dumping and environmental degradation. More than 90% of its waste finds its way to landfill site often in the most unhygienic manner (Das et al,1998) here, the meaning of landfilling process is simply dumping the waste in areas outside the city without taking any kind of sanitary measures (Das,2020).In Latin America, more than half of the waste ends up in sanitary landfills with some degree of environmental control, reflecting a regional focus on sustainable disposal methods(Global Recycling Magazine, 2023). According to a report carried out by the inter-American development bank, the region generates over 540 million tons of waste annually. While more advance in waste management, about 27% of its waste still ends up in indiscriminate dump sites lacking proper environmental safeguards. (Global Recycling Magazine, 2023).

Africa is facing a growing waste management crisis especially in the sub-Saharan region. The Sub-Saharan Africa region consists of 48 countries and was home to 1.03 billion people in 2016. It is one of the fastest growing regions of the world; more than half of the world’s population growth is anticipated to occur in Sub-Saharan Africa by 2050 (United Nations 2017). With waste generation expected to be more than quadruple by 2050. Waste management systems are slowly improving as cities are more frequently prioritizing the construction of landfills, closure of open dumps, and formalization of collection systems to improve the environmental and health impacts of waste. While the volumes of waste generated in Africa are relatively small, compared to developed regions, the mismanagement of waste in Africa is already impacting human and environmental health According to the World Bank, African cities generate approximately 125million tons of waste annually, with only 41% of this waste being collated and just about 4% being recycled. The uptake of alternative waste treatment technologies in Africa has generally been slow, land filling and open burning of waste remaining the dominant choice for the management of waste on the continent. Given the current state of technology and economic background in Africa, conventional waste treatment technologies are often difficult to implement. Here, dumps can be seen located along riversides, street corners, canals, roads sides and many illegal dumpsites created in empty spaces. On average, 57% of MSW in Africa is wet, biodegradable, organic waste, (Linda et al, 2019). This poses significant health and environmental risks spatially when dumpsites are established closed to residential areas and without any environmental considerations. Again, this phenomenon ruins the reputation of most African cities and has caused some African cities to be referred to as, Garbage cities (Mulumebet,2023).

 Municipal solid waste poses a significant environmental challenge in rapidly expanding urban areas of developing nations, including Cameroon. The swift population growth and economic progress in these urban centers have resulted in a surge of solid waste production by residents (Nanje, 2012). Waste generated from daily human, economic, and industrial activities is often discarded due to its perceived lack of utility (Achankeng, 2004). In Cameroon, a developing nation experiencing substantial population growth and urbanization, this has led to an alarming increase in domestic and economic solid waste, estimated at 5.5 million tons annually or 16,000 tons daily (Ymelé 2012). In heavily populated areas such as Yaounde and Douala, refuse dumps often get so large that they reduce the road’s width. A number of reasons for instance, the almost absence of collection arrangement, efficient treatment of waste well-managed discharge sites and the ineffectiveness of councils which have limited financial and logistic means. However, limited financial resources in developing countries often result in meager allocations for waste management and adoption of land filling as the most prominent method of waste management (Kumari and Akhilesh, 2022).In Cameroon landfills have been legalized by the environmental code so long as the person doing it obtains an authorization from a competent authority  as provided by section 51(1) of the environmental code (Ministry of Environment, nature protection and sustainable development, 2012). Most Cameroon’s municipal solid waste management (MSWM) policies are based on a public-private partnership to ensure the collection and disposal services for domestic waste in the major cities Cameroon’s waste management system is characterized by a notable reliance on a public-private partnership (PPP) model, reflecting a collaborative effort between government entities and private enterprises to address the challenges posed by escalating waste generation.(Assam et al., 2019).  The involvement of private entities in waste management operations is often driven by the government’s recognition of the need for external expertise, efficiency, and innovative solutions (Ntoban, et al, 2021)

The only existing recycling industry relates to products such as iron and bottles, which are recovered by waste pickers before the waste is collected and disposed of (Yemele, 2012). He continues to Explained that, meeting up with all the environmental standards of waste management in Cameroon is very difficult due to insufficient waste management infrastructure, population growth, rapid urbanization and lack of collaboration among stakeholders . (Bakia et al,2019). Financial limitations hinder the implementation of advanced technologies and environmentally friendly waste treatments methods. (Assam et al,2019). This explains the countries choice of open dumping and landfilling as its primary method of waste management as it cost effective and require little or no technological know-how.

the city of Bamenda being the capital of the North West, has witnessed a rapid increase in population of more 200,000 inhabitants (Bamenda city council development plan,2020) over the years, and has resulted in the generation of large quantities of wastes. The current waste management infrastructures face challenges in keeping pace with the rising demands, leading to inefficient waste collection, transportation and disposal practices. Poor waste disposal practices, including indiscriminate dumping and inadequate landfill management, exacerbate environmental degradation and pose significant health risk. All the waste collected within the city are send to the existing few dump sites which are either full or located in environmentally unsuitable areas. These areas have existed for decades and considering the rapid land use land cover dynamics, it becomes imperative for the new sites to be considered. The lack of collaboration among stake holder has greatly contributed in making a bad situation worst. According to a survey carried out by Samba and Kuma in 2020, within the city of Bamenda 90.1% of the city dwellers acknowledge disposing their waste in areas not designed by organizations in charge of waste management. In addressing these challenges, several studies, lay emphasis on the need for comprehensive waste management strategies, integrating technological advancements and community engagement.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

Bamenda, a lively urban hub in Cameroon, struggles with a mounting crisis in solid waste management, stemming from rapid urbanization and population growth. The city once celebrated for its scenic beauty now faces numerous challenges in waste management such as insufficient trash cans, which often overflow, leading to illegal waste disposal. Many households are located far from designated collection points, making proper waste disposal difficult, resulting in widespread dumping in unauthorized areas such as street corners, vacant lots, and water bodies. Additionally, the absence of organized waste collection by the state and the lack of waste sorting facilities exacerbate the issue, as all types of waste are mixed and dumped without consideration. Misallocated waste management resources, inadequate infrastructure, and the common practice of burning waste in open spaces make the waste management situation even more critical for both residents and the city’s ecosystem.

The adverse impacts of poorly located and managed dumpsites within the city of Bamenda further worsen Bamenda’s waste management crisis, with dumpsites situated on slopes, residential areas and ecologically sensitive zones. During heavy rainfall, leachates from these dumpsites leach into surrounding water bodies and soil, contaminating groundwater and exacerbating water pollution concerns. Moreover, noxious odors emitted during anaerobic decomposition in these dumpsites causes air pollution, posing health hazards to nearby residents. Notorious dumpsites like that at mile 6 Mankon and along the New access road shows the urgency of addressing landfill management deficiencies, as their proximity to residential areas and water sources heightens environmental and health risks for the city’s populace.

The efficient management of waste in urban areas poses a significant challenge requiring the collaboration of various stakeholders. Local councils, as primary overseers of waste management, are tasked with implementing policies and coordinating services, followed by companies and municipal dwellers who play crucial roles in waste generation and disposal. However, a pressing issue arises from the lack of cooperation among municipal dwellers, who frequently disregard waste disposal guidelines by neglecting to deposit their waste in designated areas or utilize provided trash cans. Moreover, the operational effectiveness of waste collection vans is impeded by a multitude of challenges, increasing the complexities of waste management. Collection vans often encounter difficulties navigating through poorly maintained road, leading to delays and disruptions in waste collection schedules. Additionally, the sporadic distribution of waste across residential areas further complicate the issue, as collection vans may inadvertently miss certain locations or expend resources in areas devoid of waste, resulting in inefficiencies and increased operational costs.

1.3 Research Questions

In this part of the study, the researcher presented the research questions which are divided into the main research question and the specific research questions.

1.3.1 Main research question

The main research question of this study is; how can geospatial technology be used to select suitable landfills in the city of Bamenda?

1.3.2 Specific Research questions

The specific research questions are presented as follows:

• What is the current situation of waste management in the city of Bamenda?
• What are the suitable landfills for waste management and improvement in the city of Bamenda?
• How can the involvement of stakeholders in the waste management process be improved using geospatial technology in the city of Bamenda?

1.4 Research Objectives

This section presents the main and the specific research hypothesis as follows;

1.4.1Main research objectives

To show how geospatial technology can be used to select suitable landfills in the city of Bamenda.

1.4.2Specific research objectives

• To investigate the current situation of waste management in the city of Bamenda
• To propose suitable landfills for waste management and improvement for the city of Bamenda.
• To show how stakeholders’ involvement in the waste management process can be improved using geospatial technology in the city of Bamenda.

1.5) Research Hypothesis

This part of the study presents the research hypothesis of the study

1.5.1 Main research hypothesis

Geospatial technology can be used for the identification suitable landfill sites for the city of Bamenda

1.5.2 Specific research hypothesis

• The current situation of waste management in the city of Bamenda is significantly poor.
• The proposed suitable landfills sites in the city of Bamenda will significantly contribute to waste management in Bamenda.
• The involvement of stakeholders in waste management will be significantly improved using geospatial technology.