CHAPTER I
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
Within this chapter, a thorough examination of landfills and geospatial technology
unfolds, presenting a clear view from the global landscape down to local level. In this
chapter, the research problems are identified, paving the way for insightful
exploration. Research questions and objectives are crafted, aligning with the
hypothesis that guides the study’s trajectory. The chapter unveils the precise location
of the study area, establishing a geospatial context for understanding the intricate
dynamics at play. Spatial delimitation delineates the boundaries, while thematic
delimitation defines the scope, ensuring a focused investigation, the temporal
delimitation, constructs a temporal framework, acknowledging the evolution of the
study over time. A detailed exposition on the socio-economic and physical background
of the study area is presented, shedding light on its geographical, geological, and
ecological and social characteristics of the study area. The significance and
justification of the study are also presented, emphasizing its relevance in addressing
pressing environmental challenges and contributing to the advancement of geospatial
technology applications in waste management.
1.1 Research context
In the wake of a global unprecedented growth in population, the problem of solid waste management has assumed a gigantic proportion in most parts of the world.
Management of solid waste is now a major global concern that is increasing by the day
(Rahman et al. 2008). Waste generation is among the most significant sources that
threaten the global environmental health. According to the world bank, 2020 about
2.01 billion tons of waste is generated annually which boils down to 5.5 million tons a
day. Countries in East Asia Pacific, Europe and Central Asia regions account for 43
percent of the world’s waste by magnitude; The Middle East, North Africa and Sub-
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Saharan Africa regions produce the least amount of waste, together accounting for 15
percent of the world’s waste. East Asia and Pacific generates the most in absolute
terms, an estimated 468 million tons in 2016, and the Middle East.
More so, it has been estimated that approximately 80 percent of this waste generated
throughout the world is landfilled (Filipenco, 2023). Until the advent of environmental
awareness in the late 60s, open dumping of solid waste was the most popular means of
disposal across the developed world. This advent saw the closure of many dumps and
an upgrading to sanitary landfills. Landfilling became a more widely utilized method
of disposal (Mofazzal, 2022). Globally The effects of improper landfills which included air pollution, ground and surface water contamination became a call for
concern as lichates from improperly located landfills infiltrated in to the soil and water
bodies rendering them useless for any purpose. This then increased the relevance of a
careful selection of landfill which could adhere to environmental sustainability.
In recent years, geospatial technology emerged as a useful tool in identifying suitable
landfill sites. In the early days, geospatial technology was mainly used by
cartographers, who needed a way to overlay multiple spatial datasets to produce one
single map. This way, they could forecast the implications of urban planning or
monitor change over time of a phenomenon in an area (Rees,2018). As time went on,
geospatial technology evolved to markedly impact the field of spatial analysis and
could be used too for the siting of landfills. This transformed the whole process from a
rudimentary to a sophisticated and comprehensive approach in selecting suitable land
fill (Chande 2024). The advent of RS and GIS in the field of geospatial technology has
significantly enriched the data availability and the possibility to analyze and visualize
complex geographic data related to location (Quamar,2023)
In the develop world like north America, landfills still remain the primary method of
waste management, receiving over 62% of waste discarded by homes. The 1976
resource conservation and recovery act (RACA) in the United States set regulatory
standards for landfills design and operation influencing landfill. The location, designand operation of landfills must comply with federal regulations. They must be
designed to protect the environment from contaminants. the federal regulations
prohibit construction of landfills in environmentally sensitive areas and their location s
must be placed using environmental monitoring systems like remote sensing
(EPA,2023). In Europe, the operation of landfills is strictly regulated to prevent
environmental and health risk. The land fill directive acts of 1999 set out requirements
for landfill location, control of leachates, soil and water protection. The waste
management frame work directive mandate members states to ensure waste disposal
without negative impacts on human health or the environment. (European environment
agency, 2024)
In Asia and Latin America, waste management is a critical issue with significant
environmental and health implications. In India for example where urbanization is
outpacing waste management infrastructure, municipal solid waste generation is
increasing exponentially, straining existing landfill capacities and leading to illegal
dumping and environmental degradation. More than 90% of its waste finds its way to
landfill site often in the most unhygienic manner (Das et al,1998) here, the meaning of
landfilling process is simply dumping the waste in areas outside the city without taking
any kind of sanitary measures (Das,2020). In Latin America, more than half of the
waste ends up in sanitary landfills with some degree of environmental control,
reflecting a regional focus on sustainable disposal methods (Global Recycling
Magazine, 2023). According to a report carried out by the inter-American
development bank, the region generates over 540 million tons of waste annually.
While more advance in waste management, about 27% of its waste still ends up in
indiscriminate dump sites lacking proper environmental safeguards. (Global RecyclingMagazine, 2023).
Africa is facing a growing waste management crisis especially in the sub-Saharan
region. The Sub-Saharan Africa region consists of 48 countries and was home to 1.03
billion people in 2016. It is one of the fastest growing regions of the world; more than
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half of the world’s population growth is anticipated to occur in Sub-Saharan Africa by
2050 (United Nations 2017). With waste generation expected to be more than
quadruple by 2050. Waste management systems are slowly improving as cities are
more frequently prioritizing the construction of landfills, closure of open dumps, and
formalization of collection systems to improve the environmental and health impacts
of waste. While the volumes of waste generated in Africa are relatively small,
compared to developed regions, the mismanagement of waste in Africa is already
impacting human and environmental health According to the World Bank, African
cities generate approximately 125million tons of waste annually, with only 41% of this
waste being collated and just about 4% being recycled. The uptake of alternative waste
treatment technologies in Africa has generally been slow, land filling and open
burning of waste remaining the dominant choice for the management of waste on theconventional waste treatment technologies are often difficult to implement. Here,
dumps can be seen located along riversides, street corners, canals, roads sides and
many illegal dumpsites created in empty spaces. On average, 57% of MSW in Africa
is wet, biodegradable, organic waste, (Linda et al, 2019). This poses significant health
and environmental risks spatially when dumpsites are established closed to residential
areas and without any environmental considerations. Again, this phenomenon ruins the
reputation of most African cities and has caused some African cities to be referred to
as, Garbage cities (Mulumebet,2023).
Municipal solid waste poses a significant environmental challenge in rapidly
expanding urban areas of developing nations, including Cameroon. The swift
population growth and economic progress in these urban centers have resulted in a
surge of solid waste production by residents (Nanje, 2012). Waste generated from daily
human, economic, and industrial activities is often discarded due to its perceived lack
of utility (Achankeng, 2004). In Cameroon, a developing nation experiencing
substantial population growth and urbanization, this has led to an alarming increase in domestic and economic solid waste, estimated at 5.5 million tons annually or 16,000
tons daily (Ymelé 2012). In heavily populated areas such as Yaounde and Douala,
refuse dumps often get so large that they reduce the road’s width. A number of reasons
for instance, the almost absence of collection arrangement, efficient treatment of waste
well-managed discharge sites and the ineffectiveness of councils which have limited
financial and logistic means. However, limited financial resources in developing
countries often result in meager allocations for waste management and adoption of
land filling as the most prominent method of waste management (Kumari and
Akhilesh, 2022).In Cameroon landfills have been legalized by the environmental code
so long as the person doing it obtains an authorization from a competent authority as
provided by section 51(1) of the environmental code (Ministry of Environment, nature
protection and sustainable development, 2012). Most Cameroon’s municipal solid waste
management (MSWM) policies are based on a public-private partnership to ensure the
collection and disposal services for domestic waste in the major cities Cameroon’s
waste management system is characterized by a notable reliance on a public-private
partnership (PPP) model, reflecting a collaborative effort between government entities
and private enterprises to address the challenges posed by escalating waste generation.
(Assam et al., 2019). The involvement of private entities in waste management
operations is often driven by the government’s recognition of the need for external
expertise, efficiency, and innovative solutions (Ntoban, et al, 2021)
The only existing recycling industry relates to products such as iron and bottles, which
are recovered by waste pickers before the waste is collected and disposed of (Yemele,
2012). He continues to Explained that, meeting up with all the environmental standards of waste management in Cameroon is very difficult due to insufficient waste
management infrastructure, population growth, rapid urbanization and lack of
collaboration among stakeholders. (Bakia et al,2019). Financial limitations hinder the
implementation of advanced technologies and environmentally friendly waste
treatments methods. (Assam et al,2019). This explains the countries choice of open
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dumping and landfilling as its primary method of waste management as it cost
effective and require little or no technological know-how.
the city of Bamenda being the capital of the North West, has witnessed a rapid
increase in population of more 200,000 inhabitants (Bamenda city council
development plan,2020) over the years, and has resulted in the generation of large
quantities of wastes. The current waste management infrastructures face challenges in
keeping pace with the rising demands, leading to inefficient waste collection,
transportation and disposal practices. Poor waste disposal practices, including
indiscriminate dumping and inadequate landfill management, exacerbate
environmental degradation and pose significant health risk. All the waste collected within the city are send to the existing few dump sites which are either full or located
in environmentally unsuitable areas. These areas have existed for decades and
considering the rapid land use land cover dynamics, it becomes imperative for the new
sites to be considered. The lack of collaboration among stake holder has greatly
contributed in making a bad situation worst. According to a survey carried out by
Samba and Kuma in 2020, within the city of Bamenda 90.1% of the city dwellers
acknowledge disposing their waste in areas not designed by organizations in charge of
waste management. In addressing these challenges, several studies, lay emphasis on
the need for comprehensive waste management strategies, integrating technological
advancements and community engagement.