CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

This chapter shall discuss the research context, the significance of the study, the internship institution, the study area, the statement of the problem, and the literature review. The chapter shall also outline the objectives of the study; bring out the research questions and the hypothesis.               

1.1 Research context.

Relief and environmental hazards are significant factors that influence the well-being and development of societies around the world. The term “environmental hazards” refers to the extreme events or substances in the earth and its ecological systems that may cause adverse consequences to humans and the things they value (International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences 2001). The study of relief and environmental hazards involves examining how the earth’s topography interacts with various natural and anthropogenic hazards. These hazards can include a wide range of events such as – Geological hazards: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and tsunamis; – Meteorological hazards: Hurricanes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, and extreme precipitation; – Climatological hazards: Droughts, heat waves, cold waves, and frost; Hydrological hazards: Floods, riverbanks erosion, and coastal erosion; – Biological hazards: Epidemics, pandemics, and the spread of vector-borne diseases.

Over the last several decades the world has experienced numerous large scale natural and technological disasters that have had enormous impacts on the lives and livelihoods of people throughout the globe. In fact, the United Nations reports that the number of disasters has risen on an average of 6 per cent each year between 1962 and 1992 (Associated Press 1995, cited in Bank off 2001) and affected an average of 200 million people annually during the 1990s itself-a fourfold increase from the late 1960s (Walker and Walter 2000). Even a few decades back one can list a number of large-scale disasters, such as: the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan, the 2004 tsunami in southern Asia, and the 1998 ice storm in north-eastern North America. Various explanations have been put forth to account for what appears to be an increasing trend in the number of disasters experienced over the last few decades. Some argue that the alleged trend is simply an artifact-the product of better media coverage or merely the reflection of a more densely settled global population (Bankoff 2001). Within this context, there has been an increased recognition that as’ natural phenomena, environmental disasters are inseparably linked to issues related to environmental conservation, resource depletion, migration patterns and land-use patterns in an increasingly globalized world-issues that are inherently social because they are based on human decisions to intervene in nature. In this light, disasters, generally speaking, can be thought of as having both natural and social constituents (Murphy 2004). Natural hazards are more prevalent in the Himalayan region mainly due to varying lithology, changing weather, extreme precipitation, density of drainage, tectonic activities, orography, topography and ongoing seismicity (Ray et al..,2007, Pareek et al.., 2010, Tiwari Ajmera 2017). In the developed countries such as European countries, catastrophic earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides are widely distributed throughout the countries, however, with a great concentration in mountainous areas. 

In the developed countries such as European countries, catastrophic events are likely to happen as people settle in mountain and low lying areas.(Nadim et al…2006). Their origins are various: geophysical (earthquakes), hydro meteorological (sea storms, floods, and avalanches), or geomorphologic (landslides). They are fairly widespread but less frequent and of relatively low intensity compared with other regions of the world; for example, an earthquake in France or Belgium is not likely to be as violent as in Greece or Japan. Some of the countries concerned, such as France and Germany, are subject to all the hazards mentioned above, while Denmark and The Netherlands are seldom exposed to earthquakes and never to avalanches because they have no mountains (Heidi Kreibich, Bubeck, et al…, 2014). Man is not responsible for phenomena such as earthquakes, but contributes significantly to the onset and aggravation of other hazards, and is sometimes largely responsible for the direct and indirect consequences, having built and maintained installations in ‘risk’ sectors. The number of victims and the cost of the damage may be high, depending on the circumstances, the intensity, and the duration of the phenomenon. Western European countries have experienced real natural disasters in the distant or recent past. Floods following a storm wave in The Netherlands in 1953 were responsible for some 2,000 deaths and damage amounting to over 3 billion Euros. These hazards result in the loss of many lives, and property.(Olivier Maquaire, May 2005)  Geodatabases, remote sensing, and mobile geographic information systems (GIS) applications were developed to perform analysis of: (1) large, climate-related disaster (Hurricane Mitch, Central America; Zambesi Flood, Mozambique), either for early warning or mitigation measures at the national and international scale; (2) distribution on slope instabilities at the regional scale (Landslide Inventory in the Aosta Valley, NW Italy), to activate prevention and recovering measures; (3) geological and geomorphological controlling factors of seismicity, to provide micro zonation maps and scenarios for coseismal response of unstable zones (Dronero, NW Italian Alps); (4) earthquake effects on ground and infrastructures, in order to register early assessment for awareness situations and for compile damage inventories (2000, 2001, and 2003 Asti-Alessandria seismic events). (Marco Giardino et al.., 2012).

The sub-Saharan african regions along with the rest of the african regions are prone to a wide variety of natural disasters. Most of these hazards and the associated disaster are relatively silent and insidious, encroaching life and livelihoods, increasing social, economic, and environmental vulnerability of hazards to moderate events. (Dewald Van et al.., 2017).The North African countries, including Morocco, Libya, Algeria, and Tunisia, have suffered heavy losses due to earthquakes, floods, and fires in recent months. On the night of September 8th 2023, Morocco was rocked by its largest earthquake in the past century. According to the latest data from the Ministry of Interior of Morocco, the earthquake resulted in 2,946 deaths and 6,125 injuries. While Libyans faced the nightmare of Hurricane Daniel. Again in May, floods in Kalima, Tipaza, and El-Agwat in western Algeria and claimed the lives of at least nine people between May 26 and June 4.(Anadolu Ajansi, Esart Firat/ 19/09/2023, update: 19/09/2023). The Central African region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda and Burundi is little known in international geomorphic and natural hazard literature. The database records some 241 events for the period 1910–2009, having resulteoccurred d in 1959 deaths and affected over 12, 2 million people. Preliminary results show that the region of the Congo Basin is more geomorphologically active than first thought, and that there is an especially high frequency of events along the Albertine rift zone encompassing the Kivu provinces in DRC, Rwanda and Burundi. It is not so much the magnitude of events, but their frequency that has resulted in widespread material and human losses. Events of hydrological origin such as mass movements and flash and wash floods are becoming increasingly important, and the number thereof has been seen to rise exponentially since 2000. (IneVandecasteele, Jan Moeyersons, Philippe TrefoisAfrican Palaeoenvironments and Geomorphic Landscape Evolution 30, 279-300, 2010).

Cameroon through its territorial configuration is exposed to many types of hazards experienced in all regions following the climate regime and morphological configuration. Field studies indicated the alignment of the landslide scars along Northwest southeast zone opposite to the mabeta fault previously identified by linear pattern of earthquake epicenters along its length although volcanic rocks cover its fault (Ayonghe, et al.., 2004).  Geo-environmental hazards in Cameroon are dominantly geological and climatic. Their area of occurrence closely corresponds to the major geomorphological units of the country. The main geological hazards in Cameroon are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mass movement.

Landslides, floods and erosion are becoming the major environmental problems in Bamenda that come as a result of the differences in the topography of the region. The Ndop plain is a volcanic plain fromed by a series of tectonic movements. The landslides and floods were realized with combining parameters in the ArcGIS software. The various parameters involved in the realization of the hazard map are the rock type, the soil type, land cover, slope dipping, slope orientation, nature of river and proximity to river (Fogwe. N. 2010).

The Fundong landslides highlighted the vulnerability of communities living in hilly regions. These features are shaped by tectonic, erosional, and depositional processes over geologic time scale. Furthermore, relief plays a crucial role in shaping the landscape, influencing deposition climate patterns and determining the distribution of ecosystems. Understanding relief is crucial for assessing landscape susceptibility to environmental hazards and planning sustainable land use.

Relief and environmental hazards are intertwined elements that shape the earth’s surface and influence the risk facing human societies and ecosystems. The analysis of relief and environmental hazards are fundamental for hazard mapping and risk assessment; Identifying areas vulnerable to specific hazards and evaluating the potential disaster preparedness and mitigation; developing strategies to minimize the adverse effects of environmental hazards through land use planning, infrastructure design, early warning systems and community resilience programs. Understanding relief and hazards is critical for conserving natural landscapes, protecting biodiversity and ensuring sustainable resource management in hazard-prone areas.

1.3. The study area.

The council is found in Fundong subdivision in Boyo division of the North West region of Cameroon. It is located within the grassland savannah area of the western highlands of Cameroon. It is situated 68km from Bamenda. Fundong subdivision is found between latitude 6°4′ and 6°20′ North and between longitude 10°11′ and 10°30′ east. It is bounded to the West by Wum sub division, to the East by Noni sub division, to the North by the Fungom sub division and finally to the South by Njinikom sub division. The entire sub division covers a land surface of about 519 square kilometers with 34 villages and numerous quarters.

1.2 The Physical Attributes of The Study Area.

The physical attributes presents physical features such as climate, relief, soils and the hydrology of the study area which plays a very important role in understanding the intensity of natural and anthropogenic hazards.

1.3.1.1 Climate

Fundong municipality is generally cold, windy and wet. Sometimes it is warm, dry and sunny during spells. Temperature ranges from 15°C to 38° C with average temperature of 24.5 to 29.7°C. Average annual rainfall stands at 2400mm per annum and humidity of 82% with two seasons. The rainy season begins from mid-march to mid-October and a dry season that extends from mid-October to mid-march.

1.3.1.2 Relief

The Fundong Municipality is found in the mountainous stretch of the western highlands characterized by the agro-ecological zone of Cameroon. The topography ranges between 40-70% slopes; with undulating hills and deep valleys. There is also the existence of warm tropical swamp.

1.3.1.3 Soils

The soils are dominantly volcanic with laterites, sands and loams in depressions. In most low lying areas, soils are thick, humus and rich e.g. sedimentary warm humus rich/fertile soils. Generally, the dominant soil types within Fundong Municipality are lateritic and ferralitic soils.

1.3.1.4 Hydrology

The major rivers found within the Fundong Municipality are Nkoini which also serves as the natural boundary between Fundong and Njinikom sub divisions; the Jviaffief, which flows from Ijim forest crossing through Fundong Town and down to Menchum in the west; Jvia Ngwa which runs from Ijim via Muteff, Abuh, Ngwa and Meli and it also separates the Fundong Municipality and ZOA Council; Jvia Ngunabum which flows from Ijim passing through Ilung and Ngunabum and joins River Kimbi. Other streams of significant value are Jvia Ibolem, Jvia Mboh which both flow from Ijim Forest and into Jvia Ngwa. Also found are prominent springs and waterfalls like “Tchimni” in Fundong Centre and the Laikom, Akeh and Ajung waterfalls.

1.3.2. Human Attributes of The Study Area.

Anthropogenic factors are equally responsible for the occurrence of anthropogenic hazards of the Fundong Sub division. It is worth noting that a greater percentage of the population of Fundong Subdivision are involved in the primary and secondary sectors of the economy.

1.3.2.1 Population

According to the results of the 2005 population census, the total population of Fundong council area was estimated at 45831 inhabitants (20531 males and 25300 females) covering a surface area of 519 sq km previous projections indicate the population density at 72 to 79/km2. After participatory village diagnosis (using primary data only) the total approximated population stands at 124841 inhabitants (Fundong Council

1.3.2.2 Economic Activities

Farming is practiced both in the rural and urban space of the municipality. Majority of the farmers still carry out subsistence agriculture with poor farming techniques like the slash and burn and shifting cultivation. These are commonly practiced on small farm sizes of about 6 hectares of land. The agro-ecological zones of the municipality include high altitude areas of the plateau. The varied agro-ecologies correspond to a variety of crops grown within the subdivision. Table10 below highlights the major crops cultivated and the estimated production data and also some initiatives to promote agriculture within the municipality.

1.3.2.3 Commerce:

Trading is among the most important economic activity that occupies a significant proportion of the population. The Fundong urban center is the focal point for business in the municipality and business activities normally reach peak levels on Fundong market day. Other important local markets within the municipality operating from daily to weekly basis are Alim and Abuh respectively. A market was also opened at Mbam which is not functional. The cattle and goat markets at jviaffief are also points of business attractions. However, the various markets need infrastructure and organization for better services to the population.(The Fundong Council Development Plan, 2020)

1.4. Statement of the problem

Fundong is characterized by steep slopes, heavy rainfall between the months of July and September that are prone to the occurrence of floods, landslides and erosion. These problems have resulted in the loss of property, left injuries on human lives and rendered some inhabitants homeless. These incidents have significant socioeconomic and environmental consequences on the affected communities, disrupting their livelihood and hindering development. The lack of awareness, preparedness and inadequate mitigation measures contributes to the issues. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach involving community engagement, improved early warning systems and sustainable land use practices to reduce the vulnerability and impacts of environmental hazards.