CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1: Background to Study

The regulation of terrorism has undergone a significant transformation over the course of history, evolving from a time when acts of politically motivated violence were treated as isolated domestic crimes to an era of comprehensive international cooperation and legal frameworks. In the early stages, terrorism was not recognized as a distinct global issue, and responses were limited to local or national jurisdictions. The assassinations of political leaders such as Julius Caesar and Abraham Lincoln were seen as individual crimes, not as part of an organized international concern. During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the term “terror” was first politicized in connection with the “Reign of Terror”, where violence was used to maintain political control.[1] However, this was an internal political strategy, not a matter for international regulation. It would have however been impossible to implement regulations to combat these acts of terrorism as they lacked the international institutions to coordinate responses.[2] Terrorism lacked a formal definition and was often conflated with rebellion or crime and political violence at the time it was seen as part of state-building or resistance to oppression. The lack of a clear and universal definition for terrorism thereby hindered the development of regulatory measures.[3]

As politically motivated violence such as assassinations, bombings, and hijackings became more organized and transnational in nature, the need for coordinated international regulation grew. This shift was driven by key historical events, such as the rise of anarchist movements in the 19th century, the assassination of political figures, and terrorist acts targeting civilians and infrastructure. [4]The assassination of Czar Alexander II of Russia (1881) by anarchists marked a turning point in politically motivated violence.[5] These Anarchist attacks spread across borders, including the assassination of U.S. President William McKinley (1901). Governments began collaborating informally, but no formal agreements or international laws were established to regulate terrorist acts.[6] The International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense against Anarchists was convened to address anarchist violence. Nevertheless, no binding agreements emerged. This failed because early efforts lacked enforcement mechanisms and legal frameworks and the Anarchism was seen as a political ideology, not terrorism, leaving states divided on how to address it. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, which triggered World War I, was seen as a politically motivated crime and as a means of achieving political independence or ideological goals, not terrorism as defined today. [7]

 Between 1947 and 1991, during the cold world, terrorism became a proxy tool in ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union.[8] Many acts of terrorism were state sponsored, with little focus on formal regulation. Over time, global institutions, beginning with the League of Nations, whose first attempt to formally regulate terrorism came with the 1974 Convention for the prevention and Punishment of terrorists[9] and later the United Nations (UN), sought to address terrorism through treaties, conventions, and resolutions. After World War II (WWII), terrorism began to be seen as both domestic and international threat especially with the rise of Nationalist and ideological movements. The Geneva Convention of 1949[10] addressed acts of violence against civilians during war but did not explicitly target terrorism. The Hague Convention on the suppression of unlawful seizures of aircraft’s 1970 however, provided for the suppression of unlawful seizures of aircraft which was the first treaty to regulate and prevent terrorism in aviation,  Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation (1971)[11], Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, Including Diplomatic Agents (1973)[12], Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (1979)[13], International Convention against the Taking of Hostages (1979)[14]The 1999 Organization of African Unity(OAU) Convention on the Prevention and combating of terrorism which was a land mark regional treaty to address terrorism in Africa.[15] On September 11 2001, the united states experienced the deadliest terrorist attacks in its history orchestrated by Islamic group al-Qarda under the leadership of Osama Bin Laden[16] the attacks involved the hijacking of four commercial airliners by 19 terrorist.1`two planes were flown into the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center (WTC) in new york city, causing both towers to collapse within hours. Two more others went dow, one into the pentagon in Arlington and the other in the field of pensylvania. These attacks killed nearly 3000 people and injured thousands more making it the single deadliest terrorist act in the world.  This acts led to the War in Terror by President George Washinton Bush . the US also passed the USA Patriot Act which greatly expanded the law enforcement’s and counterterrorism powers.[17]

In 2011, Cameroon experienced its first major spillover from Boko Haram’s insurgency in neighboring Nigeria, including attacks and kidnappings in the Far North region. This attack was on a military post in the Far North region by Boko Haram militants. This and subsequent security threats from Boko Haram, including kidnappings and violence in Cameroon’s northern regions, marked a turning point in cameroons internal security policy and prompted the government to pass the 2014 anti-terrorism law.[18] In recent years, terrorism in Cameroon is governed the 2014 anti-terrorism law, the Cameroon Penal Code[19] which outlines certain provisions though not explicitly aimed at combating acts of terrorism, maybe used to prosecute such acts. Law No. 2010/012 on Cyber security and Cybercrime which criminalizes online hate speech, including the use of electronic communications to incite violence or discrimination, The 2010 cyber Law which regulates the use of social media.

Before the coming of social media, these acts of terrorism were carried out using various deadly and disastrous techniques such as Bombings. Improvised Explosive Devices were widely used in conflict Zones such as Iraq and Afghanistan. These devices were constructed from household materials and military grade materials and hidden in public spaces, sometimes attached to attackers where they carry these devices to crowded areas often targeting symbolic locations. Armed attacks involving mass shootings, assassinations, vehicle attacks, kidnappings and hostages were all acts of terrorist attack.

 The advent of social media and the technological developments in the mid and late nineteenth century the rise of terrorism has witnessed a dramatic increase. Social media platforms have been exploited by terrorist groups and their supporters as tools for propaganda, recruitment, incitement to violence, and the glorification of acts of terrorism. Terrorist groups use social media platforms to spread propaganda aimed at glorifying their ideology and actions. They often create content that portrays their acts of violence as heroic or justified. The Islamic State (ISIS) has been one of the most prominent users of social media for propaganda. Through platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Telegram, they have released videos, images, and statements glorifying their attacks as acts of religious duty or political resistance.[20]

In Cameroon, Boko Haram has used platforms like WhatsApp and Facebook to share videos of attacks, speeches by leaders, and images of their fighters as a means of intimidating their enemies and recruiting sympathizers.Before this, they attempted establishing newspapers[21] and distributing audio cassettes with recorded messages. Social media has become a tool for the incitement of violence where their attacks are always justified. It is often used by terrorist sympathizers to praise acts of terrorism and incite further violence. The acclamation of such acts include; justifying bombings, killings, or attacks on civilians as necessary for a cause. The attack on Charlie Hebdo in Paris 2015, hashtags like “Je suis Kouachi” referring to the attackers trended on twitter with users praising the gunmen as heroes for avenging perceived insults to Islam.[22] By glorifying acts of terrorism, terrorist groups create a narrative that appeals to vulnerable individuals. Platforms like YouTube and TikTok have been used to share edited videos of terrorist attacks with heroic music and messages, drawing young people into extremist ideologies.[23] Boko Haram have recruited youths in Cameroon by posting videos of successful attacks, portraying their fighters as defenders of Islam, and promising rewards in the afterlife.[24] The separatists fighters in the English speaking regions of Cameron have equally recruited youths where they launch assault on  military bases showcasing their military capabilities and attracting  potential recruits. Through social media, terrorists have amplified fear and intimidation amongst their targets, a psychological warfare, often as effective as the physical act of violence. The images released online after terrorist attacks went a long way to intimidate civilians and Governments. This was common during the ISIS’ peak where social media was used as a public relation tool.[25] Boko Haram has equally used platforms to release videos of captured soldiers, burned villages, and executed prisoners to spread fear and showcase their strength in Cameroon.[26] The 2023 Nkambe incident where the separatist fighters planted explosives at the Nkambe grandstand resulting to deaths and plenty of casualties spread fear across the English speaking regions after it was broadcasted on social media platforms.

Terrorists have used social media as a platform to promote their campaigns where terrorist gather and share their contents using this digital space to create a sense of belonging and solidarity among extremist. The ISIS supporters used Hashtag campaigns like “AllEyesOnISIS” to spread propaganda and glorify their acts of violence.[27] Social media equally provided for the use of encrypted messaging platforms such as WhatsApp and Telegram which are increasingly used in the acclamation of terrorism as they provide privacy and anonymity. Despite this disastrous effect of social media, it will be wrong not to mention the great benefits it poses to mankind. Social media has profoundly impacted modern society, offering numerous advantages in communication, education, business, and social interaction. Social media has enabled instantaneous communication and global connectivity, bridging the gap between individuals, communities, and nations. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allow users to connect with others worldwide, fostering relationships and cultural exchange.[28]

The advent of social however remains a rising trend in the promotion of acts of terrorism and despite the promulgation Law No 2014/028 of 23rd of December 2014, the Anglophone crisis and the Boko Haram insurgents have come up to simply water down the effectiveness of the law

1.2: Problem Statement

 Social media has profoundly impacted modern society, offering numerous advantages in communication, education, business, and social interaction, ensuring the enjoyment of freedom of speech as individuals have been provided with online platforms to express their opinions, share information through a wide and accessible reach. One can conveniently say that social media platforms have emerged as a double-edged sword as it has provided fertile ground for the spread of extremist ideologies, propaganda and acts of terrorism, thus necessitating regulations.[29] This has prompted Cameroon to enact the 2014 law[30] on terrorism while sanction certain acts of terrorism in the penal code[31] and the 2010 cyber law.[32]  Despite the existence of these laws, the regulation of acts of terrorism on social media remains ineffective. Due to the anonymity and pseudonymity nature of online platforms makes it difficult to apprehend culprits who go about glorifying acts of terrorism.[33] This is further compounded by jurisdictional issues because terrorist acts are often cross national borders and may involve multiple actors and locations masking difficult to determine which jurisdiction has the right the prosecute the case.[34] Illustrative, is the incitement of terrorist acts in Cameroon through social media during the anglophone crisis. Social media enabled the creation of fake accounts which made it difficult to trace the original authors of terrorist act these platforms. The inability of the 2014 Law to foresee the instigation of acts of terrorism through social media has led to the commission of acts such as Radicalization and recruitment, propaganda and determination, fund raising, planning and coordinating through social media thus questioning the effectiveness of law No 2014/028 of 23rd December 2014 of the suppression of acts of terrorism. While the law provided a foundation for addressing terrorism, it’s provisions do not explicitly address the use of social media to glorify or celebrate acts of terrorism.

1.3: Research Questions

1.3.1: Main Research Question

How effective is the regulation of terrorism with the advent of social media in Cameroon?

1.3.2: Specific Research Questions

1. what is the concept of terrorism within the social media sphere?
2. How does social media acclimate acts of terrorism in Cameroon?
3. What are the challenges faced in the regulation of terrorism within the social media Sphere?
4. What mechanisms are put in place to combat terrorism in Cameroon.
5. What policy recommendations would enhance the effective regulation of terrorism within the media sphere.

1.4: Research Objectives

In order to answer the research questions posed in this work, the researcher has some objectives which are the Main Objectives and the specific objectives.

1.4.1: Main Objectives

1. To critically examine the regulation of terrorism with the advent of social media under Cameroonian law.

1.4.2: Specific Objectives

1. To examine the concept of terrorism within the social media sphere.
2. To examine the use of social media in the acclamation of acts of terrorism in Cameroon.
3. To examine the challenges faced in the regulation of terrorism within the social media sphere.
4. To examine the mechanisms aimed at combating terrorism under Cameroonian law.
5. To propose policy recommendations that would enhance the effectiveness of the regulations of terrorism within the social media.

[1] Hoffman Bruce, Inside Terrorism Columbia University Press,(2006) p.90-92.

[2] Ibid.

 [3] Alex Schmid P, The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research 1^ST ed.London Newyork:Routledge,(2013) p.39.

[4] Laqueur W, The Age of Terrorism 1^st edition little bown and company (1987) p104.

[5] Hoffman Bruce, Inside Terrorism Columbia University Press,(2006) p.121.

[6] Ibid.

[7]Laqueur, W. A History of Terrorism (New Brunkswick, New Jersy:NJ Transactions Publishers 2001) p21-23.

[8]  Hoffman Bruce, Inside Terrorism Columbia University Press, (2006) p.154-156.

[9] The 1974 Convention on the prevention and punishment of offences against internationally protected persons, including diplomatic agents.

[10] The Geneva Convention of August 1949 for the protection of war victims.

[11] The 1971 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation.

[12] The 1973 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, Including Diplomatic Agents.

[13] The 1979 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material.

[14] The 1979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages.

[15] The OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism1999.

[16] The national commission on terriorist attacks under the united states, the 9/11 commision report p2.

[17] Ibid.

[18] Law No. 2014/028 of 23 December 2014 on the Suppression of Acts of Terrorism.

[19] Law no 2016/007 of 12 july 2016 relating to the penal code.

[20] Berger, J.M., & Morgan, J. The ISIS Twitter Census: Defining and Describing the Population of ISIS Supporters on Twitter.Brookings Institution (2015)p. 12-15.

[21] This attempt was unsuccessful due to the disagreement over the news paper content (RANDEurope interview with professor Isaac Olawale Robert, academic experts, 8^th september 2017).

[22] Conway Maura. “ Determining the Role of the Internet in Violent Extremism and Terrorism: Six Suggestions for Progressing Research”, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism40, no.1 77-98(12 April 2016). [p. 82]retrived at https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2/16.11574/8  6^TH May 2025,4:15pm.

[23] Neumann, P. R. The Age of Lone Wolf Terrorism (Columbia University Press. 2016) p. 108-111. 

[24] International Crisis Group, confronting Boko Haram (2016) p.15-18.

[25]Klausen, J.  “Tweeting the Jihad: Social Media Networks of Western Foreign Fighters in Syria and Iraq.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism38, no.1 (2015)1-22. p. 5-7.

[26] Amnesty International, Boko Haram’s Reign of Terror in Camerron (2017).

[27] Awan, I. “Cyber-Extremism: ISIS and the Power of Social Media.” Social Science & Humanities Open5, no1 , (2017) 1-9. p. 4.

[28] Kaplan, A.M., & Haenlein, M. “Users of the World, Unite! The Challenges and Opportunities of Social Media.” Business Horizons53 no1, (2010) 59-68. p. 60.

[29] Shraddha Z. Social Media: The Doubled-Edge Sword-Benefits and Drawbacks Explored. SEO Executive at Mayura Consultancy Services, (2024)pp.1.

[30] Law No 2014/28 of December 23^rd 2014 for the suppression of acts of terrorism.

[31] Law No 2016/007 of 12^th July 2016 relating to the penal code.

[32] Law No 2010-12 0f the 21^st December relating to Cyber Security and Cybercrimes.

[33] Julie I.M, Anonymity and Identity Shielding, published by E-safety Commission Autralia (2022).

[34] The French case of Chaelie  Hebdo, 14^th 2015 Issue Number 1178.