ABSTRACT

Beauty represents a concept, an ideology and the desire to look a certain way. Most women nowadays compare themselves to media icons, with red cheeks, sharp jaw line, and wide almond eyes, which make them, feel dissatisfied with their appearance. This dissertation aims at examining the Socio-Cultural dimensions of beauty makeup practices among women in Buea. Additionally, it examined women’s perceptions and attitudes towards makeup trends in Buea and also assessed the place of makeup in women’s social status. The data for this work was collected through Interviews and Participant observation. Instruments used were question guide and observational checklist. Based on one of the major objectives, information gathered revealed that most respondents had an understanding of what makeup was all about by demonstrating that it is the use of any aesthetic products on the face or body to enhance the physical appearance of someone. Most respondents also demonstrated that they use makeup occasionally like during weddings, graduations, birthdays and any ceremony of importance. Makeup was also seen here to have many uses like to enhance the outfit of people, use for acting films and also by football fans. The community was seen to perceive non-users of makeup as ‘villagers’, poor, ‘uncivilized’ and religious fanatics while others regarded them as modest, natural and good wife materials. One of the major recommendations was that makeup users should endeavor to purchase their products from appropriate shops and should not be exaggerated on the skin because of the adverse effects it can bring upon the skin. Furthermore, educational level, marital status, and monthly salary, all have a positive impact on make-up usage.

 Key words: Socio-Cultural, beauty, makeup, perceptions, cosmetics

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.0   Introduction

During an early age, women are introduced to images of beauty and society’s ambiguous consensus on perfection. Face make-up is as old as man. It varies from culture to culture. Make-up is an integral part of most women’s life in our societies. The motivation to decorate the body and face has its beginnings in pre-historic days, when from the start, men used it to camouflage their form from predatory animals and to instill fear into threatening opponents (Corson 1972). As time went on, body painting and tattooing became linked to identity, being used to mark clan membership, as an artifact in ritual celebration and worship, and as a medium to stick and attract the opposite sex. According to Noth, (1990), the role of make-up as a symbolic medium has ancient origins and whilst the meaning and symbols painted on faces may have changed over the centuries, the myth and mystery associated with facial adornment has not changed. Make-up is not a recent invention. Women and men wore make-up in ancient cultures, such as Egypt. While the use of cosmetics has changed over the years, today in societies all over the world, women are the main buyers and users of makeup.

Cosmetics are often applied to look attractive. Therefore, the use of cosmetics is a way to support the women’s appearance. The modern world “bombards” us with the image of a “perfect woman”, which makes more and many women compare themselves with the media image and experience the feeling of growing dissatisfaction with their own appearance. Numerous attempts are made to modify it in order to achieve the desired image. With the help of facial makeup, Research has demonstrated a positive effect of makeup on facial attractiveness (Cash et al., 1989).

Silverio (2009), argues that in every society, there is a standard of appearance that the population is expected to follow. In most cultures these standard norms of behavior are considered to be cultural norms (Moriarty, 2008). In Cameroon, like in most parts societies,  it is agreed that bathing on a daily basis, brushing one’s teeth, and other general bathroom habits have become part of the cultural norm. It has often been an assumption in today’s culture that, if one does not take the time to groom themselves properly, there is something wrong with them. Many at times those who do not keep up with these grooming habits are assumed to have a mental disease or defect, be poorly cared for, or have a low opinion of themselves.

No human society known to Anthropologists or social historians has not decorated the body in some way or the other. These decorations have included wide variations in body modifications both temporary and permanently, including sculpting or shaping, tattooing, piercing, scarification, coloring. The display of cosmetics is a cultural universal Kennett, (1995).

Women are so concerned with their physical appearance, and one way to enhance their physical appearance is through makeup. Makeup is a regular part of many women’s daily grooming routines. Liubov, (2016), argues that their external appearance plays a key role in everyday life’s social interactions. Hence, taking care of their appearance allows women to adjust and protect themselves, as well as communicate emotional disposition (sympathy or aversion) and social information (values, status). Makeup as a culture has changed over time and keeps changing, the uses, frequency and motives for its use is equally rapidly changing. As the category of make-up is so diverse and continually expanding it is not feasible to examine the total sector Therefore, because the face is such an important vehicle in daily communication, this study will be limited to visible face-make-up alone. The present study will examine the socio-cultural dimensions of beauty make-up practices among women in Buea South West region of Cameroon.

1.1 Background of the Study

Historically, the use of make-up can be traced from Biblical origins. Ben-Nun (2016) states that, in Biblical times, women commonly put on color around their eyes. Women used colors to paint their eyes “Painted your eyes and decked yourself with ornament.” (Ezekiel 23:40). Besides beautification, its purpose was medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevented dryness and as protection against eye diseases. The eye-paint also repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations (Norman, 2005). Biblical references to eye painting are also connected with Queen Jezebel, portrayed as a prostitute by the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (2 Kings 9:30, Jeremiah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). Cosmetics are mentioned in the Bible, 2 Kings 9:30, where Jezebel “And she (Jezebel) painted her eyes and adorned her head” (II Kings 9:30) in approximately 840 BC.

Korichi et al. (2011) argues that, the history of cosmetics began about 6000 years ago and that over the world, people from different societies used makeup in order to enhance their beauty. Early use of cosmetics originated in Ancient Egypt in 4,000 BC. The Egyptians used materials that had harmful properties such as mercury and white lead. Lead was used to fight against eye infections such as conjunctivitis. Fragrances such as frankincense and myrrh were also used. The Egyptians used a variety of makeup utensils, such as kohl, which was used to outline the eyes. It was made with ingredients such as lead, copper, almonds and soot. The Egyptians believed that eye makeup would improve one’s sight and keep away evil spirits.

In China, make-up use can be traced to around 3000 BC. During this period, the Chinese polished their finger nails with gum arabic, gelatin, beeswax and egg. The wearing of certain colours showed that people belonged to a certain class in society. Royal people put on gold, silver, black and red nail polish. The lower-class people were not allowed to wear bright colours on their nails because it signified their class in society. Flowers play an important decorative role in China. Legend has it that once on the 7th day of the 1st lunar month, while Princess Shouyang, daughter of Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was resting under the eaves of Hanzhang Palace near the plum trees after wandering in the gardens, a plum blossom shifted down onto her fair face, leaving a floral marking on her forehead that enhanced her beauty further Cai,(2008). The court ladies were said to be so impressed, that they started decorating their own foreheads with a small delicate plum blossom design (Cai, 2008). This is also the mythical origin of the floral fashion, (“plum blossom makeup”), that originated in the Southern Dynasties and became popular amongst ladies in the Tang and Song  dynasties (Cai,, 2008). In Japan, the geisha wore lipstick made out of crushed safflower petals. It was also used to outline the eyebrows. Hair wax was also used as a makeup base (Cai, 2008).

In Europe in the early days, the wearing of makeup was considered to be sinful and immoral by church leaders. However, many rich European women copied Egyptian and Asian makeup by using white powder and white lead paint. Queen Elizabeth of England wore white lead paint and created a look called the mask of youth.  Cultures to first use cosmetics include the ancient Greeks and the Romans (Adkins et. al.1998). In the Roman Empire, the use of cosmetics was common amongst prostitutes and rich women. Such adornment was sometimes lamented by certain Roman writers, who thought it to be against the casitas required of women by what they considered traditional Roman values; and later by Christian writers who expressed similar sentiments in a slightly different context (Wilder, 1982).

According to Ben-Nun (2016), while history will forever remember that Egypt was the first civilization that used cosmetic products as an important part of their lives, it was the Roman Empire who embraced cosmetics and built around them an impressive array of fashion, religion and even laws. With many advances made by Egyptians, Romans managed to import much of their products and gain their secrets and recipes. In the height of the Roman Empire, women of all statuses used cosmetics, and were not viewed as pretty if they did not use them.

The Ancient Romans started using cosmetics for ritual purposes, but as time went on, they became part of women’s everyday lives. Wealthy people were able to buy imported makeup from China and Germany which was expensive, while poorer people could only afford cheaper knock-offs of such “high-end” cosmetics. Due to the weather conditions and the poor quality of their cosmetics, makeup was reapplied several times a day, which wasn’t always practical, especially for lower-classes women.  The Rich ones instead had female slaves called ‘’Cosmetae’’ whose job was to apply makeup on them as well as making creams, lotions and cosmetics (Cavallo et. al., 2008).

Ben-Nun (2016) argued that, as the Egyptians and other civilizations, Romans believed that fair and white skin represents wealth and high beauty position. Women usually prepared their skin with beauty masks before starting to apply makeup. Rogues viewed as a sign of attractiveness and good health, and eyes were painted in many colors to produce effect of longer eyelashes. Eyebrows that met in the middle were fashionable and were created with a little coloring. White teeth were of course prized as a sign of beauty, and they even managed to create prosthetics with false teeth made from ivory, paste and other ingredients. Breath fresheners were used regularly. Men did not use a lot of cosmetic products, except if they were openly feminine. Usually, men wore perfumes that were socially acceptable and moderately removed their hair (Cavallo et. al., 2008).

In Greece, the history of makeup is as old as civilization. Most beauty products in ancient Greece were made from ingredients found in their natural environment. Ancient Greeks used harsh substances to achieve a pale complexion, which was fashionable. Because olive trees are naturally abundant in Greece, olive oil was the lifeblood of ancient Greek culture. Based on archaeological evidence from the Aegean islands, olive cultivation started in Crete during the Minoan period (Cavallo et. al., 2008). Initially, olive oil was extracted for making fragrance oils. Later Greeks began using olive oil for food, lighting, pharmaceutical purposes and cosmetic use. In ancient Greece, olive oil became a staple for daily personal hygiene and body care. Especially for women, it was used as a beautifying skin cleanser, after-bath moisturizer and personal lubricant.

In India, ancient Indians of both genders applied a number of different makeup products. While makeup is generally seen as merely superficial, cosmetics to Indians were a means of practicing their religion and culture. In some cases, products were reserved for special occasions; in others, they were used regularly to enhance the wearer’s luck, beauty, spirituality and status (Yamada, 1997). To this day, Indian women use kajal to enhance their eyes, applying it to the waterline, eashes and outer rims of their eyes. Unlike the kohl of Africa and the Middle East, Indian kajal contains no harmful components. Instead, they would prepare the kajal by dipping a clean muslin rag in a paste made of sandalwood, used for its perceived medicinal properties. When the rag was dry, the women would burn it in a lamp of castor oil. They would combine the carbon remains with castor oil or ghee (clarified butter) for easier application. Indians applied the resulting kajal regardless of their gender or age (Momi, 2016). Kohl has been used in India as a cosmetic for a long time. In addition, mothers would apply kohl to their infants’ eyes soon after birth. Some did this to “strengthen the child’s eyes”, and others believed it could prevent the child from being cursed by the evil eye (Momi, 2016). 

During the 20th Century the use of makeup became very fashionable in the United States (Diamond & Diamond, 2008). It was then influenced by the movie industry, ballet and theatre stars such as Mathilde Kschessinska and Sarah Bernhardt. Therefore, it led to the development of cosmetics by Max Factor, Elizabeth Arden and Helena Rubinstein in the 1900s. Eugene Schueller invented two products, hair dye in 1907 and sunscreen in 1936. In the 1920s, suntan was then developed by Coco Chanel a well-known fashion designer. In the 1920s, the flapper style introduced dark eyes, red lipstick and red nail polish. Due to the development of makeup and cosmetics, it is now available in stores and boutiques, and on the Internet (Cai, 2008)

Women’s facial make-up in Cameroon caught public attention in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. During this period, Doh (2014), argued, that the oldest newspaper in Anglophone Cameroon (the Cameroon Times was running a program called ‘Women’s Special’ which was addressing women’s issues and concerns, and most West Cameroonian newspapers at the time contained content of this kind Aderinto,(2015). These columns, run by formally educated women, featured discussions on expected norms of behavior for women. The letters expressed about women’s aesthetic rituals, and reflected underlying anxiety about changing societies and changing gender norms for women.

Concerns about skin whitening, dieting, wig wearing, and cosmetics informed fears that the ‘modern’ African woman did not symbolize West Cameroonian cultural identity, not least as formal education became increasingly available for women beyond the wealthiest demographic throughout sub-Saharan Africa (Berger, 2016). The elite frequently admonished the behaviors of West Cameroonian women who diverged from these norms, and used Christianity and biblical figures to claim moral authority.

Statements about women’s beauty rituals in Anglophone newspapers suggest their political and cultural significance. Women’s columns shared advice on nutrition, weight loss, and self-care in endeavors to shape definitions of the ‘modern lady’ in West Cameroon. This included a good amount of advice about ‘natural’ beauty rituals and beauty products. They claimed that ‘natural beauty’ had pride of place among modern elite West Cameroonian women, condemning wigs, skin-lightning creams, and chemical hair straightening treatments. However, the advocates approved of beauty rituals that did not drastically alter the natural state of a woman’s beauty, such as the use of heat (not chemicals) to straighten hair.

In 1966, Cameroonian women were advised by Tolma (1966) on the lipstick colours women should use, as well as advice on nail care, asserting that women should frequently change nail polish colours. Fosah (1969), made similar suggestions, by describing extensive skincare and hairstyle regiments (1969). She recommended Oil of Ulay (today Olay). She advised against consuming cassava, saying it and other rich foods lead to a poor complexion. Informing her reader that your “face is your fortune,” she suggested that salon visits provided a good return on investment, concluding, “You will find in the long run, that it will be the most rewarding” (Fosah,1969). Such advice alarmed men who wrote letters to female journalists arguing, that the economics of women’s beauty rituals threatened gender norms within domestic spaces; that is to say, hindered women’s successful household management by encouraging them to spend money on beauty products instead of necessary items for the home.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

 It should come as no surprise that people are judged on a daily basis by their appearance, especially women. In today’s society, it is not surprising for women to be in competition with one another upon appearance and facial attractiveness (Jackson, 1992). Every woman wants to have a glamorous look in terms of their physical appearance. One reason why women would be motivated to promote their attractiveness is to increase their self-confidence. Many women reason that if they look good they will also feel good. The Renfrew Center Foundation (2007), “argued, that when they are not wearing makeup they felt unattractive; less self-conscious and naked or as though something was missing from them”.

Self-confidence is important to every woman, so they can take the courage to face and to entertain other people in their most comfortable way. Just like many other women around the world, many women in Cameroon and Buea in particular have been looking for and keep looking for means to boost their self-esteem. Makeup trends of yesterday have slowly faded away as new trends have emerged. I have personally taken note of the increase in the number of women using and purchasing makeup products. More and more makeup artists have emerged as the emergence of so many makeup studios in Buea, including freelance makeup artists. The demand for makeup is high; however, the role of make-up has not been given appropriate attention. A large portion of this culture does wear makeup at some point and time throughout their life, but there are some who still do not. There is a general expectation of beauty, in Cameroon, which creates a product driven group of woman that may not feel as valuable if they do not have the time to make themselves up. There is also the suggestion that makeup is just an accessory, perhaps it does not truly have any effect on the way a woman views herself. With a society that is often driven campaigns worth huge sums of money, promoting beauty at every corner, this study is important in helping understand whether or not a woman truly values herself in the same way when she is wearing makeup compared to when she is not.  As a social Anthropologist,  I am out to study and understand the socio-cultural dimension of  beauty  makeup among  women in Buea, which  will serve as a tool to distinguish and classify women social status, prestige and priorities. It is therefore for this reason that the present study was undertaken.

1.3 Research Questions 

1.3.1. General Research Question

What are the socio-cultural dimensions of beauty makeup practices among women in Buea?

1.3.2 Specific Research Questions

The study is guided by the following specific research questions

1. What are the perceptions and attitudes of women towards makeup trends in Buea?
2. What is the influence of beauty makeup practices on women’s social status in Buea?

1.4 Research Objectives

1.4.1. Main Objective

To examine the socio-cultural dimensions of beauty makeup practices among women in Buea.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

The study aims at achieving the following specific objectives;

1. To examine women’s perceptions and attitudes towards makeup trends in Buea.
2. To assess the place of makeup in women’s social status.