ABSTRACT

The expansion of urban areas has led to the transformation of natural landscapes into impervious surfaces, such as roads and buildings resulting in increased surface runoff and decreased groundwater recharge, disrupting the natural hydrological cycle. Consequently, water availability in catchments is reduced, leading to ecosystem degradation and water scarcity concerns. This study investigated the impact of human activities on water catchments in Menteh-Bamenda III, North West Region of Cameroon. The study made use of a mixed quantitative-qualitative research approach. The target population of the study was a total of 75 inhabitants of Menteh, Bamenda III municipality. Hypothesis testing was done using the Pearson Correlation Coefficient. The first objective of the study was to identify the types of human activities that affect water catchments in Menteh. Results showed that farming or agriculture, pollution or waste dumping and infrastructural development were significant human activities that affect water catchments in Menteh. Other human activities such as mining or quarrying, deforestation, extraction of natural resources, tourism and hunting were insignificant. Results also showed that the main persons or stakeholders involved in human activities affecting water catchments in Menteh are farmers. The second objective of the study was to assess the effects of human activities on water catchments in Menteh. The effects were forest degradation, water table drop, pollution, exposure of catchment area to soil erosion, loss of catchment ecosystem, flooding, climate change impacts and altered hydrology. Results on impacts of human activities on water quantity and quality in Menteh showed that water quantity, quality or purity and biodiversity have reduced while water colour, odour and taste have remained constant. The third and last objective of the study was to evaluate the conservation strategies and practices implemented in Menteh to mitigate the negative impact of human activities on water catchments. The main challenges faced in implementing water catchment conservation measures in Menteh are lack of financial support, inadequate community participation, lack of technical knowledge and limited government or non-governmental assistance. It was recommended to provide incentives for landowners to adopt sustainable land management practices, such as agroforestry and contour farming, establish a waste management system to reduce litter and prevent pollution of water bodies and adopt sustainable agricultural practices that minimize erosion and nutrient runoff.

Key Words: Impact, Human Activity, Water Catchment, Implications, Conservation Strategies

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the study and presents the research context or background to the study, proceeds with the presentation of the study area including the location, the physical and human background of the study area, the chapter also presents the internship institution, the statement of the research problem, research questions, objectives and hypotheses and concludes with the significance or pertinence of the study to key stakeholders.

1.1 Background to the study

Water is life and is an abundantly available finite and renewable substance in nature which man has exploited more than any other resource for survival (Pawar and Shembeka, 2022). Despite the fact that water covers over 70% of the earth’s surface, only a small percentage of this water is available for domestic and industrial use, waste disposal, recreation, hydropower generation, irrigation and fishery development. The rest of the water is locked up in oceans and seas as salt water, polar ice-caps, glaciers and underground water (Dara and Mishra, 2011; Gupta et al., 2009). Fresh water is increasingly becoming limited due to pressure from human populations, modern agriculture that is being practiced to boost yields to meet increasing demand, industrialization, poor watershed management that includes encroaching of riparian land and raised demand of water per household for domestic uses (Weldemariam, 2013). Globally fresh water comprises 2.5 % of the total water mass with 68.7% of the water being in ice form, 29.9% in aquifers as underground water and 0.26% in lakes and rivers. All these sources are susceptible to pollution hence reducing water potability (Carpenter et al., 2011).

In Europe, where urbanization and industrialization have extensively altered landscapes, research has focused on understanding the effects of these processes on water catchments. The expansion of urban areas has led to the transformation of natural landscapes into impervious surfaces, such as roads and buildings. This change results in increased surface runoff and decreased groundwater recharge, disrupting the natural hydrological cycle. Consequently, water availability in catchments is reduced, leading to ecosystem degradation and water scarcity concerns. Additionally, urban areas contribute to water contamination, as pollutants from residential, commercial, and industrial sources are discharged into water bodies. These pollutants may include heavy metals, nutrients, pharmaceuticals, and other harmful substances, impairing water quality and posing risks to human health and the well-being of aquatic ecosystems (Günther & Dahe, 2020).

Similarly, the United States, with its industrial and agricultural activities, has faced significant challenges regarding water catchment management. Industrial activities generate pollution from factories and manufacturing processes, releasing harmful chemicals and waste into water bodies (Yaraghi, 2021). The discharge of pollutants can lead to water contamination, threatening the integrity of catchment areas and aquatic ecosystems. In the agricultural sector, intensive farming practices, including the application of fertilizers and pesticides, contribute to nutrient runoff and soil erosion. These activities have a direct impact on water quality and the overall health of catchment areas.

Turning to Africa, research on the impact of human activities on water catchments has gained attention in recent years (Gete & Hurni, 20011). The African continent faces unique challenges due to diverse socio-economic and environmental contexts. Studies conducted across various African countries, including Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa, have examined the effects of human actions on water catchments. Rapid urbanization, driven by population growth, intensifies pressure on water resources (Bruneau, Lesturgeon & Jablonski, 2016). Increased demands for water result in water scarcity concerns, and improper waste management exacerbates pollution and water quality degradation. Inadequate sanitation infrastructure and limited access to clean water further impact human health and wellbeing. Furthermore, changes in land use patterns associated with agricultural expansion contribute to deforestation, soil erosion, and reduced water quality within catchment areas.

In Cameroon, the impact of human activities on water catchments is a significant concern (Ndam et al, 2011). The country, characterized by its diverse ecosystems and rich natural resources, including water bodies, faces challenges related to population growth, urbanization, and expanding agricultural practices. Research conducted in various regions of Cameroon reveals the pressures on water catchments caused by deforestation, mining activities, inadequate waste management, and agricultural practices (Porot et al, 2011). Deforestation disrupts the natural hydrological regime, affecting water yields and altering precipitation patterns. Mining activities introduce sediment and pollutants into water bodies, degrading water quality and compromising the health of aquatic ecosystems. Inadequate waste management and pollution from agricultural activities further add to the degradation of water catchments, increasing the vulnerability of communities to water-related diseases and reducing overall water availability.

Zooming in further to the local level within Cameroon, Bamenda III, located in the North West Region as a rapidly urbanizing area, faces increasing demands for water resources for domestic, commercial, and industrial purposes. The expansion of urban areas, coupled with inadequate sanitation infrastructure and waste management practices, poses significant challenges to water catchments in the region. Urbanization alters the natural landscape, reducing infiltration and increasing surface runoff, ultimately reducing water availability within catchments (Obaje et al, 2020). Insufficient sanitation infrastructure and inadequate waste management contribute to pollution, as untreated waste finds its way into water bodies. Furthermore, unsustainable land-use practices associated with agriculture, such as deforestation and intensified farming methods, further degrade water catchments by increasing sedimentation, nutrient runoff, and the use of agrochemicals.

1.2 Presentation of The Study Area

1.2.1 Location

Bamenda III subdivision is located in the North West Region of Cameroon, precisely in Mezam Division. The precise location of Bamenda III falls geographically between longitude 10° –02´ to 10° -15´ East of the Greenwich meridian and latitude 06° -15´ to 06° -25´ North of the equator. It covers a surface area of about 22.9 km². Bamenda III is bordered by Bamenda II and Bamenda I to the West, Santa to the North and Mankon to the North East. Figure 1.1 shows Bamenda III and its main quarters including Meneh in the North West Region of Cameroon.

1.2.2 Physical Milieu  

1.2.2.1 Climate  

Bamenda III has the tropical climate. It has two distinct seasons (dry and rainy season). When compared with the dry season, the rainy season has much more rainfall. Bamenda II has an annual rainfall of about 2000mm with the driest month being January, while in September precipitation is at its peak with an average of 384 mm. The average temperature is 21.6 ⁰C. Heavy clouds usually descend from the hills leading to advection fog and during such occurrence, visibility is very poor (Bamenda III Council, 2019). 

1.2.2.2 Relief and Drainage  

Bamenda III shows a wide variety in its relief with altitudes ranging from 800meters to about 2600 meters above sea level (Bamenda III Council, 2019). It has relief features such as hills with gentle as well as steep slopes. Most high altitudes parts of the area lie on the highland mountain chain of the North West and West regions of Cameroon.  Bamenda III also has many streams, a few of which have some economic values. The most important river in the area is the River Mezam which flows through the entire Mankon village. The floods plains of the river are used for farming during the dry season. Fishing and quarrying is also carried out in the river Mezam.

1.2.2.3 Vegetation and Soils  

Bamenda III falls within the Sudan Savannah zone. The Sudan savannah forms the dominant vegetation, which consist of grass field around the city of Bamenda and few trees which shed their leaves during the dry season as a defense against dry weather. Raffia palms grow in the valley depressions. The repeated cutting and burning of trees by humans has forced the forest back to areas along waterways and has allowed grasslands to expand into the area.  Three main soil types characterizing the area are lateritic/loamy soils found mostly in low-lying areas. There are also clay soils in areas around raffia palm bushes. Given the hilly nature of the area, most of the soils on the mountain slopes have been washed down to the valleys forming a rich zone of fertile soils. Lateritic/loamy soils are used for the making of sun-dried bricks for construction of houses. Crops like corn, sweet potatoes, beans and cocoyam are grown in rich valley soils. However, eucalyptus is planted in some areas which have greatly leached the soils (Bamenda III Council, 2019).  

1.2.3 Human Setting  

1.2.3.1 Population Dynamics  

Bamenda III Council has 02 main clans, Nkwen and Ndzah. The Nkwen people who are part of the Tikar group, migrated from Northern Nigeria, passing through Ndop to Njinkwin in Kom, then through Bafut to Ateila from where they settled at the present site. Then, there are the Ndzah people who are believed to be part of the Baforchu (Mbu) people who broke away around the 18^th Century under the leadership of Chief Ngu Fomumunte Foboingong. They moved through Widikum-Bafut-Mankon-Nkwen and finally settled at their present site. Note should be taken that all these movements were either because of the quest for fertile land, security, or chieftaincy disputes. From time immemorial, these groups have been inter-marrying and even with their neighbors of Bafut, Mankon, Mendankwe, and Bambili. This closeness is evident in their cultures which have a lot of similarities than differences.

Today, there is a great ethnic mix within the council area. It is very common to find the Fulani within the council area whose presence is as a result of cattle rearing which is their main stay. There are also Nigerians, Ngemba, Bamilike, Noni, Nso and Wimbum people. Despite this mix, there is always that strong bond among all inhabitants and they freely inter-relate either for social or other reasons whenever need arises. Statistics shows that population figures for the Bamenda III Council area have witnessed an increase.  From the financial documents (Budgets of Bamenda III council) of 2008 (47,000) and 2009 (48,500), there has been a remarkable increase. Recent figures however show that the population stands at over 150.000 inhabitants (Bamenda III Council, 2019).

1.2.3.2 Economic Activities  

The huge population of Bamenda III has greatly contributed to the occupation of this urban area with structures hosting both their economic activities and their own settlement. Here we have buildings of different categories hosting either economic activities like commercial banks, hotels, financial corporation, shops, health facilities, churches, enterprises, insurances, transportation activities. We also have petit businesses like saloons, restaurants, shops. More than 50% occupation is done by infrastructures for the settlement of this population which are also of different categories. Apart from the above infrastructures we have social infrastructure and larger like transportation facilities, schools, water supply infrastructures, hospitals, markets, energy supply. The main industries are the processing of agricultural produce such as coffee, elementary food processing, handicraft, cottage industry, education (schools), tourism/hospitality, construction works and transport. The local museum and shops display a wide variety of local baskets, beads, woodcarvings and bronze statues.  

1.3 Internship Institution

A 30-day internship was done at the Bamenda III council. Bamenda III Council was created in 2007 by Presidential Decree. No. 2007/117 of 24th April 2007. Since then, it has been operating on a temporal site. However, its permanent site is under construction. From its creation, the following persons have been Mayors; Prince Pius Ngwa Amandou SDF 2007-2010, Fonguh Cletus Tanwe SDF 2010-Present. Bamenda III has 02 main clans, Nkwen and Ndzah. The Nkwen people who are part of the Tikari group, migrated from Northern Nigeria, passing through Ndop to Njinkwin in Kom, then through bafut to Ateila from where they settled at the present site. Then, there are the Ndzah people who are believed to be part of the Baforchu (Mbu) people who broke away around the 18th Century under the leadership of Chief Ngu Fomumunte Foboingong. They moved through Widikum-Bafut-Mankon-Nkwen and finally settled at their present site. Note should be taken that all these movements were either because of the quest for fertile land, security, or chieftaincy disputes. From time immemorial, these groups have been inter-marrying and even with their neighbours of Bafut, Mankon, Mendankwe, and Bambili.

This closeness is evident in their cultures which have a lot of similarities than differences. Today, there is a great ethnic mix within the council area. It is very common to find the Fulani within the council area whose presence is as a result of cattle rearing which is their main stay. There are also Nigerians, Ngemba, Bamilike, Noni, Nso and Wimbum people. Despite this mix, there is always that strong bond among all inhabitants and they freely inter-relate either for social or other reasons whenever need arises. The total surface area of Bamenda is 22.9 Km2 hectares and its estimated population stands at 105.244 (according to projection by CAMGIS in Minimum Urban Local Development Scheme (SMAUL) February 2008). The population of Bamenda III municipality is largely cosmopolitan made up of indigenous Nkwen and Ndzah people, migrants from all over the North West and West Regions, other regions of Cameroon and Nigerians. Bamenda III also accommodates the Christian.

Structurally, the Bamenda III council is made up of several departments headed by the mayor. Figure 1.2 shows the Organigram of the Bamenda III Council.

1.4 Statement of the Research Problem

Water catchments in Menteh-Bamenda III, are facing significant degradation and contamination as a result of human activities, leading to adverse impacts on water quality and quantity. The expanding population, rapid urbanization, intensive agricultural practices, inadequate waste management, and limited conservation efforts in the area have exacerbated the deterioration of water catchments. This poses threats to both the socio-economic well-being of the local communities and the ecological integrity of the area. The population in Menteh has been increasing at a rapid pace, driven by internal migration, resulting in an intensified demand for water resources. The growing population, coupled with rapid urbanization, exerts pressure on limited water resources within the catchment area. As urban areas expand, natural landscapes are being transformed into impervious surfaces such as roads, buildings, and concrete structures. These changes disrupt the natural hydrological cycle, leading to increased surface runoff and reduced infiltration of water into the groundwater. Additionally, the agricultural sector in Menteh heavily relies on unsustainable practices such as intensive pesticide use, improper irrigation techniques and excessive land clearing. These activities contribute to the degradation of water catchments by causing erosion, sedimentation, and contamination of water bodies. The excessive use of agrochemicals contributes to nutrient runoff, which leads to eutrophication and a decline in water quality. Moreover, deforestation for agricultural purposes disrupts the natural vegetation cover, leading to soil erosion, habitat loss, and alterations in the hydrological regime. Inadequate waste management practices further compound the problem. The region experiences challenges related to the collection, treatment, and disposal of waste, leading to the direct discharge of untreated sewage and other waste materials into water bodies. This contamination poses risks to both the quality of water and the health of individuals reliant on these water sources for domestic purposes, irrigation, and livestock-rearing activities. At present, the conservation efforts in Menteh are limited and fragmented. The existing initiatives primarily focus on awareness campaigns, yet practical measures that tackle the root causes of catchment degradation and contamination are lacking. As a result, the current approaches fail to comprehensively address the complex challenges faced by water catchments in the region. Thus, there is an urgent need to comprehensively assess the impact of human activities on water catchments in Menteh.