CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

There are certain constraints which every language has that guide the way the language is used. The rules called the grammar of a language play a mighty role in the structure and function of the language. Given that in the North West and South West regions of Cameroon, English is used as a second language (L2) and French as a foreign language; the language is learned in a way that is different from that of a mother tongue. As a result, comprehensible inputs ought to be carefully selected. The desire of researchers and scholars has always been to look for ways to improve language users’ ability to communicate in real life situations. To teach English in Cameroon, a country that has approximately 273 national languages  (Njwe, 2016) is not an easy task.

 During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a growing concern among researchers that Chomsky’s view of language was inadequate for explaining language users’ ability to communicate in the ‘real world’. Similar concerns appeared in language teaching circles about the usefulness of methodologies that were based on narrow, formalistic views of language. A number of researchers for example Hymes (1974) and Halliday (1986) argued that in order to use language successfully for communication, learners need to develop communicative competence, that is “the capacity for implementing, or executing (linguistic) competence in appropriate, contextualized communicative language use” (Bachman,1990). Since the 1970s, there have been a number of models aimed at defining the key aspects of communicative competence. One of the earliest models was that proposed by Canale and Swain (1980) in which communicative competence consists of three kinds of competences. First, grammatical competence, that is, knowledge of the lexis, phonology, morphology, semantics and sentence grammar of the language; secondly, discourse competence, that is knowledge of the cohesion, coherence and rhetorical organization of texts and conversations, and lastly, the sociolinguistic competence that has to do with the knowledge of the sociocultural rules of the discourse  community that help users decide what kind of language (register, variety) is appropriate to use in different situations. Canale and Swain’s model of communicative competence is still used in different language benchmarks and policy documents, for example, the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference for Language Proficiency (CEFR, 2001). Others have suggested the inclusion of other aspects of language use in models of communicative competence. Bachman (1990) and Bachman and Palmer (1996), for example, have argued for the inclusion of what they call illocutionary (or functional) competence, meaning the knowledge of different functions of language in communication (how we, as Austin famously put it, “do things with words”) and strategic competence, the ability to use metacognitive strategies to monitor one’s language use and plan what to say next. In nearly all models of communicative competence, particular attention is paid to the social and functional aspects of communication, as well as where, with whom and for what purpose the speaker is engaged in the act of communication.

Critics of the models for communicative competence presented above have argued that while they highlight the significant contribution of sociolinguistic, pragmatic and discourse knowledge to communicative language ability, they do not consider communication as a dynamic process in which language users exchange, interact with and negotiate meaning. Kramsch (1986) was one of the first to argue that the construct of communicative competence should account for this dynamic process, and therefore L2 curricula and assessment practices should aim to teach and test language not only in terms of linguistic knowledge and discourse ability, but in terms of learners’ ability to collaborate, negotiate meaning and accommodate the needs of their interlocutors during communication, what she called an ‘interactionally-oriented’ curriculum (1986p.369). Interactional competence, from this perspective, is viewed as the ability of a language user to engage in interactions using the linguistic, paralinguistic, and non -linguistic resources of a language, building conversations cooperatively with others, and coping with the often unpredictable flow of communication. As Young (2000p.101) puts it, “Interactional competence is not the knowledge or possession of an individual person, but it is co-constructed by all participants in a discursive practice.” For many researchers and language teaching practitioners, this focus on the highly dynamic and co-constructed nature of communication makes interactional competence a difficult construct to work with when it comes to designing teaching activities or assessing the attainment of learners. Some researchers, in fact, have argued (for example, Fulcher, 2010) that given its co-constructed nature, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to clearly define or objectively measure an individual’s interactional competence using conventional language assessment methods. One proposal by Kasper (2006: 86) provides a set of abilities that define interactional competence in terms of a set of ‘can do statements’, potentially making the measurement of it possible. These include ‘being able to understand and produce social actions in sequences’, ‘being able to take turns and organize them’, and ‘being able to make repairs when problems occur in speaking, hearing and understanding’. More recently, Poehner (2008) has proposed that interactional competence can be measured through dynamic assessment, a structured approach in which a teacher or assessor engages with the learner cooperatively in an act of communication, helping them move beyond their existing level of performance to gradually become more independent. Concepts such as interactional competence and dynamic assessment are primarily influenced by a Vygotskyian perspective on learning that assumes knowledge is socially and culturally constructed through the process of interaction.

The inadequacy of Chomsky’s view on language continues even today. That is, why after his theory on language, other theories are propounded and there is a sure sign that scholars and theoreticians will continue to look for better ways to teach learners language

1.1 Background to the Study

 The English Language has gained a prestigious status as a global language. With the world becoming a global village, there is an increased need for it in multiple domains such as politics, trade, religion and technology. Due to its importance, people have increased desire to learn and speak it. Unfortunately, they find it very difficult to speak as the native speakers do because they already speak different languages which interfere with their use of the English Language. This has led to varieties of English referred to as “New Englishes”. Numerous errors  are made during the process of learning the English Language. Principally, English teaching and learning process cannot be free from mistakes or errors, misinterpretation, misapplication about something that has been learnt (Brown 1987p.9). As Pada and Lightbown (2005, p.167) stated that: “Errors are natural part of language learning. The errors reveal the pattern of learners’ developing interlanguage systems showing where they have over generalized a second language.”

English Language is spoken  as a second language in so many countries in Africa. Many nations in Africa  also use English as an official language. English is used for communicative purposes in some 53 countries in Africa. As Negash (2011), states “as an official language of the African Union and as an international language, English is important for the continent.”

In Cameroon, English Language is studied not only as a second Language as most Anglophones  do but also as a foreign language as it is the case with most Francophones. This implies that every learner of the language is faced with multiple challenges due to interference at the level of lexicology, grammar (morphology and syntax) semantics and pragmatics. Students face challenges when performing a task they are assigned to do. These challenges come from the multiple lingual nature of the nation. Learners face challenges when assigned tasks to perform with the grammatical structure of the language they have been taught given that the architecture of a language is just a way through which one passes to one’s destination. It is on this basis that there is need to look at the structural and functional relevance of teaching the language to learners. This means relating theoretical knowledge with tangible practical problems of life with the aim of solving them.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Generally, it is realized that the performance of Form Five students at the GCE Ordinary Level English Language paper has dropped drastically. This problem is attributed to scant attention that is paid to the grammar of the language by students and those they look up to as models. If  Form Five students are unable to master the grammar of English that  is  to be taught to them  both structurally and functionally, they will not be able to do well at the GCE. This is because paper two of the examination carries 70% of the marks allocated for the entire paper and tests students’ competence at the level of writing. In addition, even paper one that carries only 30% of the marks commands adequate knowledge of structure and function of the language.

1.3 Definition of Key Terms

Grammar: According to Hornby (1948) grammar is the rule in a language for changing the form of words and joining them into sentences. Qoderiah Lig  (2010) defines grammar as the natural, inherent meaning-making system of the language, a system that governs the way words come together to form meaning; grammar is also the study of that system, the various theories or perspectives attempt to understand and describe it. Niba (2007p.13) quoting Eko (1987) defines grammar as a system of rules governing the use of words in a language. In this same way, Penny Ur (1996) defines grammar as “the way words are put together to make a correct sentence.”

Language: Finegan (2008p.9) in his text titled Language: Its Structure and Use defines a language as “a set of elements and a system for combining them into patterned expressions that can be used to accomplish specific tasks in specific contexts.” Utterances report news, greet relatives, invite friends to lunch, request the time of day from strangers; with language, we make wisecracks, poke fun, argue for a course of action, express admiration, propose marriage, create fictional worlds, and so on. He also goes on to say that Language is often defined as an arbitrary vocal system used by human beings to communicate with one another (p.22). This definition is useful as far as it goes although it downplays writing and signing. It also downplays an important fact that philosophers have emphasized about language, namely, that language is more than communication. It is social action, with work to perform. Language is a system that speakers, writers, and signers exploit purposefully.

Word: According to Bloomfield (1926), “a minimum free form is a word.” A  word is a sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation or printing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme or of a combination of morphemes.(www.thefreedictinary.cm).

Phrase: Katamba (1994) states that a phrase is “a syntactic constituent headed by a lexical category, that is, a noun, adjective, verb, adverb or preposition.” It is also a group of related words in which there is no subject or a predicate.

Clause: Ndongmanji (2007) states in The Basics of Traditional Grammar: A Simplified Course for Beginners that a clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.

Subject: Katamba (1994) defines a subject as “the part of the sentence containing a noun phrase which precedes the verb and agrees with the verb in number. Typically, the rest of the sentence (called the predicate) says something about the subject.”

Sentence: Ndongmanji (2007) defines a sentence as “an independent group of words that contains a subject and a predicate (verb) and is not dependent on another group of words to complete its meaning.”

 Structure: Structure is the arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of something complex (Oxford Dictionary of English).

Error Analysis:  Brown (1980) defines “error analysis as the process to observe, analyze, and classify the deviations of the rules of the second language and then to reveal the systems operated by learner.”

Errors: An error is an unintentional departure from truth or accuracy (Offline Synonyms and Antonyms). It is not corrected by the person who commits it because he or she does not know that it is an error.

Analysis: It is the separation and identification of the parts of a whole; a series of explanations or observations on something (Offline Synonyms and Antonyms).

Mistakes: A mistake is an incorrect judgment [that can be corrected by the one who makes it] (Offline Synonyms and Antonyms).

Syntax: Syntax is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences (en.m.wikipedia.org).

Parts of speech: A part of speech is a term used in traditional grammar for one of the nine main categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences, such as nouns or verbs. Also known as word classes, these are the building blocks of grammar (www.thoughtco.com).

Adjective: An adjective is a word belonging to one of the major form classes in any of the numerous languages and typically serving as a modifier of a noun to denote a quality of the thing named, to indicate its quantity or extent, or to specify a thing as distinct from something else (www.merriam-webster.com).

Adverb: According to Mbanwi (2003), adverbs are words that are added to verbs to attain  a clearer or fuller or more explicit meaning.

Article: Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific (www.grammarly.com).

Conjunction: Conjunctions are words which are used to connect other words, phrases or clauses (Mbanwi, 2003).

Interjection: Mbanwi (2003) defines interjection as “words used to express sudden and emotional feelings.”

Noun: A word (except a pronoun) that identifies a person, place, or thing, names one of them _ proper noun (www.englishclub.com).

Preposition: A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns or phrases to other words within a sentence (www.gingersoftware.com).

Pronoun: Pronouns are words you substitute for other nouns when your reader or listener already knows which nouns you are referring to (www.grammarly.com).

Verb: A verb (from Latin verbum ‘word’) is a word (part of speech that in syntax generally conveys an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being [like] be, exist, stand (en.m.wikipedia.org).

Impressionistic Meanings

Language structure: This refers to the constituents of a language such as morphology, phonology and phonetics, syntax, semantics, pragmatics and grammar which go together.

Structural relevance: The importance of the knowledge of how the words of a Language, phrases and clauses work when they are meticulously put together.

Functional relevance: The importance of the application of the knowledge of how words, phrases, clauses and sentences if carefully selected and blended, display the grammar of Language, for example, English Language.

Structural and functional relevance: The importance of using the acquired competence to carry out a required task. The ability to learn because of a problem that you want to solve.

 1.4 Research Questions

This study shall answer the following questions:

1 .How does inappropriate knowledge of the grammar of a language affect the speech and writing of the language?

2. How does the poor mastery of structural and functional aspects of English affect students’ performance in both directed and essay writing ( in an English Language examination)?

3 How can the grammar of a language be taught to learners so that it affects both their speech and writing?

 1.5 Objectives of the Study

This study sets out to investigate the relevance of using acquired competence called knowledge to accomplish tasks also called expected outcomes (the place of function or application). The work therefore focuses on:

1. Finding out how inappropriate knowledge of the grammar of a language affect the speech and writing of the language.

2.Ascertaining whether the failure of a student to carry out a given directed and essay writing task, for example, in an English language examination is as a result of a poor mastery of structural and functional aspects of English.

3. Determining how the grammar of a language should be taught to learners so that it affects both their speech and writing.